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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 20, 1930 
290080 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


Epaar T. WHERRY 
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 


C. WrtuEr CooxE 


EpGar W. WooLaRD 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


GRORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


H. E. Merwin Haroup Morrison 
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 
EH. A, GOLDMAN G. W. STosE 
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY -: 
AGNES CHASE J. R. Swanton 
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
Roger C, WELLS 
CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY 
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY 
BY THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


THE WAVERLY PRESS 
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ERRATA 
Vol. 20,1930 


Page 48, line 21: for ‘‘chacteristic’’ read ‘‘characteristic.’’ 
Page 48, line 32: for ‘‘tubersoa’’ read ‘‘tuberosa.’’ 
Page 392, line 20: for ‘‘Illinois”’ read ‘‘Illinoian,”’ 

Page 402, line 26: for ‘‘than’’ read ‘‘as.’’ 

Page 406, line 20: for ‘‘Ospores”’ read ‘‘Oospores.”’ 
Page 422, line 22: for “‘by’’ read ‘‘to.”’ 

Page 422, footnote: for ‘“‘Hureke’’ read ‘‘Eureka.”’ 

Page 424, line 27: for ‘‘reminants’’ read “‘remnants.”’ 
Page 425, line 22: for ‘‘consist’’ read ‘‘consists.’’ 

Page 425, line 29: for ‘‘southern”’ read ‘‘northern.”’ 
Page 425, line 33: for ‘‘same’’ read ‘‘name.”’ 

Page 426, line 31: for ‘‘Dinorthes’’ read ‘‘Dinorthis.”’ 
Page 426, line 35: for “‘laminatedy”’ read “‘laminated.”’ 
Page 427, line 33: for ‘‘neither’’ read ‘‘none.’’ 

Page 429, line 39: for ‘‘diminantly”’ read ‘‘dominantly.’’ 
Page 430, line 7: for ‘‘many”’ read ‘“‘may.”’ 

Page 431, line 36: for ‘‘is’”’ read ‘‘are.”’ 

Page 432, line 10: for ‘‘Trissic’’ read ‘‘Triassic.’’ 

Page 455, line 31: for ‘‘about 81,000” read ‘‘over 80,000.” 





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“puneat oF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS 


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Hide me re ‘ _ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY vie . 


G. W. Srosz 


| GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 





2, SWANTON | . 
THROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 





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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Vou. 20 JANUARY 4, 1930 No. 1 


PALEONTOLOGY .—A new Callianassa from the Cretaceous of South 
Dakota!) Mary J. Ratusun, U. 8. National Museum. 


In 1927 a number of fossil crustaceans collected by William L. 
Russell of the South Dakota Geological Survey were received through 
Dr. Carl O. Dunbar of the Peabody Museum of Yale University. 
They came from the Cretaceous of South Dakota and represent an 
undescribed species of Callianassa. 


Callianassa cheyennensis, sp. nov. 


Type-locality —Very top of Pierre shale and just below Fox Hills sandstone; 
collected along both banks of the Missouri River at several points between 
the mouth of the Cheyenne River and the Cheyenne Agency; 17 fragmentary 
specimens showing portions of the chelae. Type in the Geological Museum 
at the University of South Dakota at Vermillion. 

Measurements.—Propodus of left cheliped, holotype, length to end of 
finger 14.6, length to sinus between fingers 10, greatest height 10.6, distal 
height of palmar portion 9.2 mm. 

_ Description.—The type-specimen (Fig. 1) shows the inner face of a propodus 
of a left and probably major cheliped. Palm short and high, the greatest 
height equal to the length through the middle. Upper margin straight ora 
little convex, rounding down at each end. Proximal end not exactly at right 
angles to upper margin but forming a slightly acute angle. Considering the 
upper margin as horizontal, the lower margin after rounding down from the 
proximal end slopes gradually upward to the tip of the finger. Surface nearly 
flat. Finger (propodal) narrow, its base less than a third the height of the 
distal end of the palm; from the base it narrows rapidly to a slender extremity 
and curves gradually upward. On the inner surface of the hand there is, 
close to the lower margin, a row of hair sockets of which 27 can be made out; 
this does not include a few that may be at the proximal end. On the upper 
margin the sockets are fewer and more distant but the number cannot be 
determined. On the inner surface near the margin of the finger there is a 
curved row of three small distant sockets; the two distal of these are paired 
by a socket higher up, either on or just over the finger edge. At the distal 
end of the palm near the sinus between fingers there are two large sockets, 


1 Received November 18, 1929. 


2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 


much larger than any others. A little below the upper margin in a straight 
line not quite parallel with the margin, but sloping a little downward distally 
to the condyle articulating with the dactylus, there is a row of linear spaced 
sockets of which about 9 can be made out. A few more sockets are scattered 
over the inner surface. 





Callianassa cheyennensis. 


Fig. 1. Inner view of propodus of left Fig. 2. Inner view of dactylus of right 
cheliped, X 3. Holotype. cheliped, X 4. Paratype. 





Fig. 3. Callianassa cheyennensis. Paratype. 
Outer view of propodus of right cheliped, X 4. 


The paratype (Fig. 3) is a right palm with the outer surface exposed. If, 
as I assume, it is the same species as the holotype, it is a minor chela of a 
larger specimen. The upper portion is broken off, the outer surface is convex 
from top to bottom and the inner is flat. Parallel to the lower margin outside 
there is a row of rather large well separated sockets 12 of which are visible, 
running on to the finger. A large socket near the sinus between the fingers 
is by far the largest of a series of 5 which follow the line of the propodal 
finger; and on the edge there is a row of small, evenly spaced sockets at least 
7in number. Below the middle of the palm there are 5 or 6 distant fair-sized 
sockets making 2 subparallel oblique lines. On the distal edge of the palm 
between the fingers there is a strong tuberculiform tooth pointing distad. 


JAN. 4, 1930 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 3 


The movable finger (Fig. 2) belongs to a right chela, perhaps to the prop- 
odus just described, near which it lies; it is very thick, upper surface broad, 
upper margin convex except for a deep transverse sinus which embraces 
the articulating condyle. ‘Two sockets transversely placed on upper surface 
not far from sinus. On inner surface just below upper margin there is a row 
of 5 prominent oblique sockets. Further down at the middle two small 
sockets are disposed longitudinally; 2 sockets on lower surface and a broad 
triangular subbasal tooth. The thin prehensile edge is nearer the outer 
surface; it, as well as the tip, are incomplete. 

Affinity —The specimens have been compared with 3 specimens of C. 
whiteavesii Woodward? from Sounding Creek, N.W. Territory. In this species 
the palm is definitely longer than wide, its proximal end is at right angles to 
both upper and lower margins, although the latter begins to slope upward at 
about the middle of its length, making the proximal half of the palm higher 
than the distal half. None of the specimens show the inner surface. The 
outer surface is less convex than in cheyennensis, its upper edge thin and not ~ 
bent over so far on to the inner side. A smooth, blunt ridge runs inward 
from the upper edge of the propodal finger and fades out about half way along 
the palm. The surface below this is flattened or a little concave. In the 
new species this surface is evenly convex. Close to the upper edge in white- 
avesii there is a row of lengthwise punctae 12 of which can be made out. 
Near and parallel to the proximal end, a row of 6 punctae, visible on the 
counterpart of Woodward’s fig. 2b; and a row of 3 punctae arranged length- 
wise and slightly obliquely at the middle of the palm and pointing toward 
the upper edge of the propodal finger (on the counterpart only of fig. 2b). 
The fingers are of about equal size. On the original of Woodward’s fig. 2a 
there is a large, depressed, transverse socket on the palm near and parallel 
to the dactylus. 


BOTAN Y.—Botanical notes on, and descriptions of, new and old species 
of Venezuelan plants.—III. Old and new species of Euphorbiaceae 
(Conclusion).! H. Prrrimr, Caracas, Venezuela. 


Croton redolens Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hluteria) 


Arbuscula redolens, aromatica, coma depressa, ramis contortis, nodosis, 
glaberrimis, cortice griseo tectis, ramulis novellisque dense fulvo-tomentosis; 
foliis alternis, petiolatis, membranaceis, petiolis laminis 2-3-plo brevior- 
ibus, teretibus, tomentellis, apice 2-7-glandulosis, glandulis brevissime 
stipitatis, laminis late ovatis, subcordiformibus, basi leviter emarginatis 
rotundatisve, 5—7-nerviis, apice acutatis obtusiusculis, supra velutinis vel 
praeter nervis parce stellulatis, subtus dense cano-tomentellis, marginibus 
plus minusve sinuato-dentatis, dentibus villosulis; stipulis inconspicuis; 
racemis terminalibus axillaribusve, pedunculatis, rhachi anguloso, longitu- 
dinaliter sulcato, fulvescente-tomentello; bracteis inconspicuis; floribus 
flavescentibus virescentibusve, pedicellatis, haud congestis, foemineis remotis 
1-8 basalibus, masculinis 1-4-fasciculatis, cito deciduis; flor. foem.: pedicello 
crasso calyce subaequante, calyce haud accrescente extus tomentoso intus 


— NGeoleMag. n.s.7: 430. pl.17, fig. 2° (1900) 
1 The two first contributions on new and old species of Venezuelan plants appeared 
in THis JOURNAL 19: 175-186 and 351-357. 1929. Received November 15, 1929. 


4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 1 


parce stellulato, pilis bombycinis, segmentis ovato-lanceolatis obtusis; petal- 
is lineari-lanceolatis, villosis, calyce brevioribus; ovario dense tomentello, 
stylis semel dichotomi, cruribus denticulatis, basi parce stellulatis; flor. 
masc.: pedicello gracili calyce subbreviori, calycis segmentis ovato-oblongis, 
obtusis, tomentosis; petalis ovato-oblongis, obtusis, utrinque villosulis; 
receptaculo bombycino-villoso; staminibus 15-17, glabris; capsula pedicel- 
lata, subglobosa, trisuleata, extus dense stellulato-tomentosa; seminibus 
carunculatis, laevibus, oblique transverse-sulecatis. 

Arbuscula 2-3 m. alta, basi ad 12 em. crassa. Petioli 0.8-3.5 em. longi; 
laminae 2.5-8 em. longae, 1.5-6 cm. latae. Racemi 4-10 em. longi, pedun- 
culis 2-2.5 em. Flos masc.: pedicelli sub-2 mm. longi; calycis segmenta ex 
centrum 2-2.5 mm. longa, 0.8-1.2 mm. lata; petala circa 1.5 mm. longa, 
0.5-0.8 mm. lata. Flos foem.: pedicelli plus minusve 5 mm. longi; calycis 
segmenta ex centrum 4—4.7 mm. longa, basi 1.5-1.8 mm. lata; petala 1.8-2.5 
mm. longa, 0.1-0.4 mm. lata. Capsula 4-7 mm. longa; semina 2-5 mm. 
longa. 

FEDERAL District: On arid hills near Las Trincheras, 900 m.; Tacagua 
valley, on the old cart-road from Caracas to La Guaira, forming small groves; 
flowers and fruits September 6, 1925 (Pittier 11886, type); other collections, 
same locality Pittzer 10250 (var. parvifolia), 10254 (var. velutina). 

The female flowers are always distinctly 5-petalous, so that this interesting 
species has to be placed in Section Eluteria, where it has so far no nearly 
related Venezuelan ally. It presents itself in at least three distinct varieties: 
the typical one (var. genuina Pittier, var. nov.); another with larger leaves 
velvety on the upper face (var. velutina Pittier, var. nov.); and a third, 
the tree more twisted and gnarled, the leaves also tomentellose on both faces, 
but much smaller, biglandular or the glands obsolete (var. parvifolia 
Pittier, var. nov.). 

All parts of the tree, the leaves especially, have a very aromatic, pungent 
smell, and are used as a home medicine. Vernacularly, the plant is known as 
Sangredrago, a name which applies to the arborescent species of Croton 
generally. 


Croton anomalus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Decarinium) 


Arbuscula ramis glabris glabrescentibusve, ramulis parce adpresseque 
stellulato-pubescentibus: foliis alternatis, membranaceis, breviter petiolatis, 
basi eglandulosis, petiolis teretibus, adpresse pubescentibus indumento stellu- 
lato pilis paucis erectis longioribus intermixto, laminis ovalibus ovato- 
lanceolatisve basi rotundatis, leviter emarginatis, quintuplinerviis apicem 
versus sensim angustatis et abrupte cuspidatis, marginibus irregulariter 
sinuatis, dentatis serrulato-dentatisve, supra pilis simplicibus parcissime 
hirtis vel glabrescentibus asperulisque, subtus dense cano-tomentellis; stipulis 
elongatis, lanceolato-linearibus, pubescentibus; racemis terminalibus, rhachi 
pubescente; bracteis linearibus, stellulato-villosis, persistentibus; floribus 
foemineis 1-3 sessilibus subsessilibusve, calycis segmentis 6 (interdum 7) 
ovalibus, obtusiusculis, valde inaequalibus, 4 anteriores reliquis majoribus, 
supra obscure viridis stellulato-puberulis, subtus cano-tomentellis; ovario 
dense fulvo-hispido, stylis ter-dichotomis, cruribus gracilibus, villosis, su- 
premis brevibus; floribus masculis numerosis caducissimis pedicellatis, foemi- 


JAN. 4, 1930 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 5 


neis minoribus; pedicellis gracilibus, calycis segmentis late ovalibus, obtusis, 
tenuiter membranaceis, venulosis, atque receptaculo utrinque villosis; petalis 
calycis segmentis paullo longioribus, obvato-spathulatis, longe angusteque 
unguiculatis, utrinque villosulis; staminibus 16, filamentis villosis; capsula 
ignota. 

Boe eiceuld ad 2 m. alta. Petioli 0.6—1.2-cm. longi; laminae 3-6.5 em. 
longae, 1—2.7 cm. latae. Stipulae 0.8-1 cm. longae. Racemi 5-7 cm. longi; 
bracteae circa 3mm. longae. Flos masc.: pedicelli 1.5-2.5 mm. longi; calycis 
segmenta ex centrum 4 mm. longa, 1.8-2.4 mm. lata; petala 4 mm. longa, 
1.2-1.6 mm. lata. Flos foem.: calycis segmenta majores ex centrum 6.5-7.2 
mm. longa, 2.8-3.8 mm. lata. 

Lara: Los Rastrojos, between Sarare and Barquisimeto, in bushes; flowers 
April 9, 1925 (Pittver 11757, type). 


This species departs from all the other species of Croton found heretofore 
in Venezuela in the 6-7 calycinal segments, 4 of which are manifestly larger 
than the 2 remaining ones. Though I am aware that its relationship to 
C. glandulosus and C. chamaedryfolius is very remote, I have placed it pro- 
visionally in Section Decarinium. 


Croton timotensis Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Decapetalon) 


Arbuscula tronco ramisque in aetate glabrescentibus, ramulis teretibus 
villoso-tomentosis pilis simplicibus fulvescentibus; foliis modice petiolatis, 
membranaceis, petiolis canaliculatis dense stellulato-tomentosis apice pauci- 
(2-6-) glandulosis, laminis ovato-cordiformibus basi late emarginatis sub- 
truncatisve (3—)5-(7)-nerviis, apice longe cuspidatis, margine dentatis, 
supra praeter nervis stellulato-puberulis glabrescentibus minute tuberculatis, 
subtus dense estellulato-tomentosis, pilis fulvescentibus; stipulis setaceis, 
stellulato-villosis; racemis elongatis, remotifloribus, rhachi pedicellisque dense 
tomentellis, bracteis lineari-subulatis; floribus 4—6-fasciculatis; foemnecs 
subsessilibus interdum solitariis, calycis segmentis anguste oblongis, obtusis, 
extus tomentellis, glandulis atris substipitates alternantibus; ovario fulvo- 
tomentoso, stylis semel dichotomis, cruribus basi parce stellulatis; calycis 
segmentis florum masculorum late ovatis, obtusis, extus fulvo-tomentosis; 
petalis 10, calycis segmentis brevioribus, lanceolatis, basi longe attenuatis 
glabris, apice ciliatis; receptaculo villoso; staminibus 39-51, filamentis villoso- 
tomentosis; capsula ovoidea, extus parce stellulata; seminibus laevibus, 
carunculatis. 

Arbuscula usque ad 2.5 m. alta. Petioli 1.5—-5 em. longi; laminae 4-11 cm. 
longae, 2-5 cm. latae. Stipulae 3-4 mm. longae. Racemi 15-22 cm. longi; 
pedicelli florum masculorum circa 4 mm. longi; bracteae 4-5 mm. longae. 
Flos masc.: calycis segmenta ex centrum 4-4.5 mm. longa, 2—2.5 mm. lata; 
petala 3-4.2 mm. longa, 0.9-1.6 mm. lata. Flos foem.: calycis segmenta ex 
centrum 5-6.5 mm. longa, 1.1-1.6 mm. lata. Capsula circa 6 mm. longa; 
semina 4.5—5.5 m. longa. 

Meriva: Vicinity of Timotes, 2000 m., in bushes along river; flowers and 
fruits January 20, 1928 (P7ttier 12646, type). 


This species is a most interesting addition to the flora of Venezuela, being 
the first and only representative of Section Decapetalon, which according to 
Muell.-Arg. comprised heretofore only 3 species, 2 in the Tropics of Asia and 
Africa and another in Southern Brazil. 


6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 


Croton confusus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hucroton-Eutropia) 


Arbor elegans, trunco erecto, cortice griseo tecto, coma elongata, ramis 
vestutis glabrescentibus, juveniis dense rufo-tomentellis, pilis stellulatis; 
foliis submembranaceis, imprimis utrinque stellulato-tomentosis, indumento 
subtus petiolorumque densius et canescente, in aetate utrinque glabrescenti- 
bus nervibus supra subtusque prominentibus, venulis reticulatis subtus 
prominulis; petiolis elongatis, gracilibus vix sulcatis, laminis amplis, integris 
trilobatisve, basi leviter emarginatis biglandulosis, glandulis magnis sessilibus, 
lobis acuminatis, saepe sublobulatis, margine sinuato-dentatis, dentibus 
glandulosis; stipulis setaceis, caducissimis; racemis foliis brevioribus rhachi 
dense stellulato-tomentoso; bracteis inconspicuis, ovatis, villosis; floribus 
luteis 6-9-fasciculatis, masculis foemineisque inmixtis, pedicellatis; pedicellis 
masculis calyce subduplo longioribus, foemineis brevioribus; calycis masculi 
segmentis ovatis, obtusis, extus dense stellulato-tomentosis intus receptaculo- 
que tomentosis pilis simplicibus; petalis lanceolatis obovato-spathulatisve, 
tomentosis, calycis segmentis longioribus; staminibus 24, glabris; calycis 
foeminei segmentis oblongis, apice acutatis, obtusis; disci glandulis majuscu- 
lis; ovario dense fulvo-hirsuto, pilis simplicibus; stylis e basi divisis, fere 
glabris, cruribus apice breviter bilobulatis, lobulis latis obtusis. Capsula 
non vidi. 

Arbor ad 20 m. alta, basi 40 em. crassa. Petioli 4-14 cm. longi, laminae 
7-22 cm. longae, 3.5-16.5 cm. latae. Racemi 12-16 cm. longi; pedicelli 
florum masc. 4-6 mm., foemin. circa 2 mm. longi. Flos masc.: calycis 
segmenta ex centrum circa 4 mm. longa, 2.2 mm. lata; petala 4.5-5 mm. 
longa, 1-1.5 mm. lata. Flos foem.: calycis segmenta ex centrum circa 5 
mm. longa, 1-2 mm. lata. 

Yaracuy: Forested hills around Iboa near San Pablo, at an altitude of 
450 m.; flowers January 2, 1929 (Pzttier 13077, type). 


Confused at first with Croton gossypizfolius Vahl, it differs in the number of 
stamens, which was found to be 24 in all the flowers examined; in the con- | 
texture of the leaves almost invariably with two large glands at the base and 
with small yellow glands on the margin; in the yellow flowers; and in several 
other good characters. The vernacular name is Sangrito. 


Croton caracasanus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hucroton-Cleodora) 


Arbor parva vel mediocris, ramis glabrescentibus, ramulis plus minusve 
lepidotis; foliis alternis, membranaceis, opacis, modice petiolatis, petiolis 
gracilibus, anguste canaliculatis, parce lepidotis, apice hirtellis superne 
biglandulosis, inferne hirtellis, glandulis sessilibus crateriformibus; laminis 
ovalibus, basi rotundatis 5-nerviis, apicem versus acutatis, margine irregu- 
lariter grosse serrato-dentatis, utraque pagina stellulato-lepidotis, lepidibus 
haud contiguis, supra obscure viridis, subtus pallidioribus nervis vix prominu- 
lis basi hirtellis; stipulis inconspicuis; racemis elongatis, rigidis, remotifloris, 
saepe unisexualibus; basi saepe bracteis 2, foliaceis alternis suffultis; rhachi 
gracili, anguloso, densius lepidoto; bracteis inconspicuis; floribus parvis, 
numerosis, foeminers sessilibus, vulgo solitariis interdum binis; calyce breviter 
tubuloso, lepidoto, segmentis ovatis, obtusiusculis; ovario cano-tomentoso, 
stylis bifidis, cruribus crassis, subciliatis; floribus masculis breviter pedicellatis, 
calycis segmentis late ovatis, extus tomentellis; petalis calyce subaequantibus, 
extus glabris, intus receptaculoque bombycinis, margine dense cano-tomentel- 
lis; staminibus 14-16; capsula depressa, trisuleata, parce stellulato-lepidota. 


ao 


JAN. 4, 1930 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS / 


Arbor usque ad 12 m. alta, basi 35-40 cm. diam., vel saepe arbuscula 
depressa 2-3 m. alta. Petioli 1.5-4 em. longi; laminae 5.5-12 cm. longae, 
3-7.5 em. latae. Racemi 10-22 cm. longi. Flos masc.: pedicelli 1-1.5 mm. 
longi; calycis segmenta ex centrum 2.3-3 mm. longa, 1.7-1.9mm. lata. Petala 
24-3 mm. longa, 0.9-1.2 mm. lata. Calyx foemineus circa 2.5 mm. longus, 
segmentis 1.4—2 mm. longis, 0.9-1.3 mm. latis. Capsula 8 mm. longa, circa 
10 mm. lata. 

Lara: Vicinity of Duaca; flowers July 1925 (Saer d’Héguert 276, type). 
FEDERAL District: Catia de los Frailes near Caracas, on rocky slopes; 
flowers and fruits December 21, 1923 (Pittzer 11289); Chacafito Gorge, in 


forest; flowers August 24, 1923 (Pittzer 11181). 


This species, which seems to be very variable in size, is not uncommon 
on the wooded hills with southern exposure and in the cool gorges around 
Caracas. I do not think to be mistaken in placing it in Series Argyrocroton, 
Subsect. Cleodora of Sect. Hucroton, although the two other Venezuelan 
species of that Series, C. orinocensis and C. multicostatus differ in the habit, in 
the glandless leaves and in the twice divided styles. C. caracasanus would 
come near to C. stenotrichus Muell.-Arg. In Lara, it is known vernacularly 
as Sangre de drago and Cdscara amarga. 


Croton multicostatus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hucroton-Cleodora) 


Arbor parva vel mediocris, ramulis crassis creberrime subferrugineo- 
lepidotis, in aetate glaberrimis; foliis magnis, coriaceis, integerrimis, modice 
petiolatis, petiolis teretibus, anguste canaliculatis, lepidotis, lepidis haud 
contiguis, laminis late ovatis, basi emarginatis, eglandulosis, apice vulgo late 
rotundatis, supra primum praeter costam nervosque dense stellulato-hirsutis 
parce stellulatis, demum glaberrimis, subtus primum utrinque densissime 
lepidotis, mox glabrescentibus glabrisve, costa venisque 12-15 parcissime 
stellulato-lepidotis; stipulis lineari-lanceolatis, lepidotis, cito deciduis; racemis 
terminalibus densifloris haud bene evolutis, rhachi alabastrisque lepidotis; 
bracteis masculis 3-floris, lepidoto pubescentibus late triangularibus, con- 
cavis, unilateraliter lobulatis, lobulo triangulari; petalis oblongis, obtusiuscu- 
lis, extus minutissime puberulis, intus glabris, margine dense ciliatis; recepta- 
culo villoso; staminibus 11-12, filamentis basi barbatis; bracteis foemineis 
masculis majoribus, unifloris, intus glabris; calyce foem. subtubuloso, seg- 
mentis ovatis, acutis, extus lepidotis, intus plus minusve villoso-tomentosis; 
ovario dense rufo-villoso, stylis bis vel ultra dichotomis; et caetera ignota. 

Arbor 8-12 m. alta. Petioli 4-5 cm. longi; laminae 9-19 cm. longae, 
6-14 cm. latae. Stipulae 1.2—-2 cm. longae, 2-3 mm. latae. Bracteae foem. 
ad 1 em. longae, masc. 0.5 cm. longae. Calyx foem. circa 1.2 em. longus, 
lobulis 0.5 em. longis, 2.5-3 em. latis. 

CaRaBoBo: Hacienda de Cura, 900 m., in forests; in bud August 15, 1918 
(Pittier 8018, type). 

This fine species, of which we unfortunately have only imperfect specimens, 
belongs undoubtedly to Series Argyrocroton, Subsect. Cleodora of Section 
EKucroton (Medea). The scales are of the same type as those of the Brazilian 
Croton migrans Casaretto. The most striking character, which this species 
has in common with C. wmbratilis H.B.K., consists in the unusually large 


8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 


number of primary veins; the size and glabrescence of the mature leaves are 
also unusual in the Venezuelan species. The tree is known locally as Torco. 

Until more complete information is obtained, we assign to this species our 
No. 11948, also imperfect, with unripe capsules. It differs from the typical 
C. multicostatus mainly in the oval-lanceate leaves. The scales of the petioles 
also seem to be smaller, with indistinct rays. The young capsules are obo- 
void, 13-15 mm. long and scaly furfuraceous, the seeds 11 mm. long, smooth 
and with a sessile caruncula. The calyx is persistent, but apparently not 
accrescent. The tree is a large one with a trunk not less than 4 m. up to the 
main limbs and about 50 cm. in diameter. In the valley of Caruao (Federal 
District) whence our specimens come, it is known as Sarasaro. 


Croton grossedentatus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Eucroton-Cleodora) 


Frutex humilis, trunco ramis vestutis glabris glabrescentibusve, ramulis 
squamuloso-stellulatis, novellis petiolis racemorum rhachidibusque dense 
hirto-tomentosis; foliis membranaceis, modice petiolatis, basi eglandulosis 
7-nerviis, petiolis leviter canaliculatis, laminis oblongo-ovatis basi cordiforme 
emarginatis, apice sensim acuminatis acutissimis mucronulatis, marginibus 
fere e basi grosse serrato-dentatis, dentibus serrulatis apicibus glanduloso- 
mucronulatis, supra obscure viridis parce stellulatis, subtus cano-tomentosis 
costis nervibus venulisque transversalibus prominentibus; stipulis lineari- 
setaceis, stellulato-pilosis; racemis brevibus axillaribus terminalibusque, basi 
floribus foemineis 2-4 breve pedicellatis, apice floribus masculis cito caducis 
gerentibus; bracteis parvis, hirsutis, caducissimis; floribus parvis; foemineis: 
calyce persistente, segmentis oblongo-acuminatis, extus dense fulvo-tomento- 
sis, intus glabris; ovario fulvo-hirsuto, stylis sub-4-partitis, cruribus gracilibus, 
saepe bifidis, fere ad apicem villosis; floribus masculis foemineis minoribus, 
calycis segmentis oblongis, apicem obtusem versus angustatis; receptaculo 
villoso; staminibus 12, exsertis, filamentis glabris; capsulis obovoideis, extus 
cano-villosis, indumento stellulato in aetate depauperato; seminibus ovalibus, 
earunculatis, laevibus, brunneis. 

Frutex usque ad 1.50 m. alta. Petioli 1—-5.5 em. longi; laminae 6.5-12 em. 
longae, 3.5-6 cm. latae. Stipulae 8-10 mm. longae. Racemi 2.5-4.5 em. 
longi. Flos masc.: pedicelli 3 mm. longi, calycis segmenta ex centrum 2.7—3.2 
mm. longa, 1.2-1.4 mm. lata. Petala 2.8-3.3 mm. longa, 0.5-1 mm. lata. 
Flos foem.: pedicelli 2-3.5 mm. longi, calycis segmenta e basi 5.5 mm. longa 
(longitudino calycis 7 mm.), plus minusve 2.5 mm. lata. - Capsula 6-7 mm. 
longa; semina circa 3.5 mm. longa 

Lara: On arid hills along the road between El Tocuyo and Humocaro Bajo; 
flowers and fruits, January 6, 1929 (Pittzer 13105, type). 


Related to C. populifolius Mill. through the mode of division of the styles 
and the number of stamens but differs in the eglandular calyx, in the serrature 
of the leaves, and the simply subulate stipules. From C. urticaefolius Lam. 
it is distinguished by the number of stamens (12 instead of 9-11), the glabrous 
filaments, and also the shape of the leaves and the eglandular stipules. 


JAN. 4, 1930 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 9 


Croton truxillanus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hucroton-Cleodora) 


Frutex vel arbuscula ramulis novellisque sordide pubescentibus, foliis 
alternis, breviter petiolatis, membranaceis, sub-3-plinerviis, petiolo sordide 
pubescente laminis 5-7-plo breviori, apice biglanduloso, laminis ovatis, basi 
cuneatis apice breviter acuminatis, supra pubescentibus cinereo-viridisque, in 
aetate glabrescentibus, subtus dense cano-tomentosis, pilis omnium stellatis, 
marginibus obscure denticulatis; racemis terminalibus, elongatis, basi floribus 
foemineis 2-7 subsessilibus, apice floribus masculis dense congregatis gerenti- 
bus, rhachi gracili tomentoso; bracteis triangulari-lanceolatis, tomentosis, 
foemineis 1-, masculis 1-—3-floris; florzbus foeminers: calyce persistente, 
segmentis ovato-triangularibus, obtusiusculis, extus dense tomentosis, intus 
glabris: petalorum rudimentis conspicuis, glanduliformibus: ovario dense 
flavescente-tomentoso, stylis bifidis, basi glabris, cruribus gracilibus, stellato- 
pilosulis; floribus masculis: calycis segmentis late ovatis obtusis, extus tomen- 
tosis, intus glabris; petalis oblongo-linearibus, obtusis, basi villosis, calyce 
longioribus; receptaculo villoso-tomentoso; staminibus 15-17, filamentis basi 
villosis; capsulis subovoideis, extus dense stellulato-tomentellis; seminibus 
oblongo-ovoideis, minute carunculatis, lucidis, biseriatim oblique undulato- 
costatis. 

Frutex vel arbuscula 0.50-3-metralis. Stipulae triangulares, inconspicuae, 
1-3 mm. longae. Petioli 0.6—2 cm. longi; laminae 5-12 cm. longae, 2—5 cm. 
latae. Racemi 6-12 cm. longi. Bracteae 3-4 mm. longae. Flos masc.: 
calycis segmenta ex centrum 3 mm. longa, circa 1.5 mm. lata; petala 2.5 mm. 
longa, 0.5-0.7 mm. lata. Flos foem.: calycis segmenta ex centrum 3.5-4 mm. 
longa, basi 1-1.2 mm. lata. Capsula circa 4 mm. longa; semina 3.5 mm. 
longa, 2 mm. lata. 

TrugILLo: El Dividive, in scattered savanna groves; flowers and fruits 
November 27, 1922 (Pittier 10820, type); Loma del Moron, near Valera, in 
bushes; flowers November 18, 1922 (Prttver 12723, 12725); Mendoza, on steep, 
arid hills; flowers January 19, 1928 (Prttier 12627). 


So far this species has been collected only in State Trujillo, where it seems 
to be rather common and is known as salvia muneca and punta de lanza. It 
looks very much like Croton rhamnifolius H.B.K., but differs in the obliquely 
grooved seeds, in the shape and dimensions of the calyx and in the rudi- 
mentary petals in the female flowers. 


Croton dolichostachyus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hucroton-Cleodora) 


Arbuscula vel arbor parva, ramulis sordide pubescentibus, apice ramorum 
congregatis subverticillatisve; foliis magnis mediocrisve, longe petiolatis, 
membranaceis, discoloribus; petiolis crassis, canaliculatis, fulvo-pubescenti- 
bus, laminis 3-4-plo brevioribus; laminis ovato-lanceolatis, basi breviter 
3-nerviis, obsolete 3—4-glandulosis, cuneatis subrotundatisve, apice breviter 
acuminatis, supra punctulatis parce pilosulis, subtus densius stellato-pubes- 
centibus tomentosisve sordide canescentibus, marginibus minute serrulatis; 
stipulis obsoletis; racemis longissimis, remotifloris, rhachi pubescente, angu- 
loso, sulcato; bracteis triangularibus apiculatis; flos foem.: bracteis 1-floris, 
floribus sessilibus, numerosis, calyce extus tomentello, intus glabro, segmentis 
lineari-triangularibus, angustis, apice obtusiusculis; ovario dense rufo- 
tomentoso; stylis profunde bifidis, cruribus longissimis, apice saepe clavatis, 
parcissime stellulato-pilosulis: flos masc.: braeteis 2—5-floris, floribus breviter 


10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 


pedicellatis; calyce dense stellulato, segmentis ovato-acuminatis; petalis 
linearibus, calyce subaequantibus, basi bombycino-barbatis; receptaculo 
villoso; staminibus circa 20; filamentis glabris; capsula ovoidea, extus dense 
rufo-stellulata. 

Arbuscula usque 3-metralis. Petioli 2-7 cm. longi; laminae 12-16 cm. 
longae, 3.5-7.5 em. latae. Racemi 18-30 cm. longi. Bracteae 2.5-4.5 mm. 
longae. Flos masc.: pedicelli circa 2’m. longi; calycis segmenta ex centrum 
2.5-3 mm. longa, 1.3-1.6 mm. lata; petala 2.2-2.6 mm. longa, 0.5-0.9 mm. 
lata; flos foem.: calycis segmenta ex centrum 3-3.5 mm. longa, basi 0.5-1 
mm. lata; stylorum crures ad 4mm. longa. Capsula circa 4 mm. longa. 

Lara: Between Corora and Trentino, common on valley flats; flowers 
January 16, 1928 (Pittier 12616, type). Zui1a: Near Mene Grande, in 
bushes; flowers and fruits November 2, 1922 (Pittier 10651). 


Belongs to the group of Croton rhamnifolius, from which it differs mainly 
in the much longer petioles, in the very long racemes, in the shape of the 
petals and in the number of stamens. 


CROTON FERRUGINEUS H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 2: 77. 1817 (Sect. Hucroton- 
Cleodora. ) 


Arbuscula ramis elongatis cortice griseo tectis, ramulis, novellis rhachi- 
busque densius stellato-ferrugineis; foliis parvis, breviter petiolatis, mem- 
branaceis, penninerviis, petiolis ferrugineo-hirsutis, laminis circa 5-plo bre- 
vioribus; laminis ovalibus, basi rotundatis biglandulosis, apice late obtusis 
mucronulatis, margine minute denticulatis, supra parce subtus densius 
sordideque stellatis, costa venisque subferrugineis subtus prominulis; stipulis 
nullis vel inconspicuis; racemis brevibus subdensifloris, rhachi anguloso; 
bracteis parvis triangularibus, acutis, hirsutis, persistentibus, marginibus 
glandulosis; flos foem.: bracteis unifloris, floribus sessilibus, calycis segmentis 
ovato-lanceolatis, subacutis, utrinque flavescenti-hirsutulis; petalorum rudi- 
mentis conspicuis, brevibus, glanduliformibus; ovario densius fulvescente 
stellato-hirsuto; stylis fere usque ad basin bifidis, cruribus parce stellato- 
pilosiusculis; flos masc.: bracteis 1-3-floris, floribus breviter pedicellatis; 
calycis segmentis ovato-lanceolatis, obtusiusculis, extus dense villosis; petalis 
obovatis, spathulatisve, sepalis longioribus, unguiculo elongato, angusto, 
margine longe barbato; receptaculo villoso; staminibus 14-19, filamentis basi 
villosis; capsula parva, ovoidea, dense stellato-pubescente; seminibus carun- 
culatis, lucidis, minutisime rugulosis. 

Petioli 5-10 mm. longi; laminae 2.5-4 mm. longae, 0.9—2 em. latae. Racemi 
5-8 em. longi. Bracteae circa 1 mm. longae. Flos masc.: pedicelli 2—5.5 
mm. longi; calycis segmenta ex centrum 2.7-3 mm. longa, cirea 1.3 mm. lata; 
petala 2.7-3 mm. longa, cirea 1 mm. lata. Flos foem.: calycis segmenta ex 
centrum 3—3.4 mm. longa, 0.7—1.1 mm. lata. Capsula 6 mm. longa; semina 
5 mm. longa. 

Méripa: Paéramo del Morro, 2500 m.; flowers and fruits April 1st, 1922 
(Jahn 1063; redescription based on this). 


It is difficult to distinguish Croton ferrugineus from the several varieties of 
C. flavens L. Jahn’s specimen, however, seems to correspond closely to the 
description of the first species, differing only in the smaller leaves, the larger 
calyx and also in the presence of glandular rudiments of petals in the pistil- 


JAN. 4, 1930 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 11 


late flower, a detail which may have escaped to the original observer. From 
C. flavens it differs in that the primary veins emerge from the costa at an 
acute, not nearly right angle; also in the shape of the basal glands, in the 
eaducous female calyx, in the styles divided nearly from the base, and in the 
shape and indumentation of the male petals. 


Julocroton acuminatissimus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Oligonychia) 


Frutex elatus, ramis ramulis angulosis petiolisque dense sordideque stellu- 
lato-pubescentibus; foliis membranaceis, petiolis teretibus, laminis 6—7-plo 
brevioribus; laminis ovato-lanceolatis, basi latioribus, 3-7-nerviis, rotundatis, 
obsolete biglandulosis, apice longissime gradatim acuminatis, marginibus 
irregulariter denticulatis, supra viridis crebre minuteque stellulatis, subtus 
dense stellulato-pubescentibus; stipulis lineari-setaceis, integris, stellulato- 
pilosulis; inflorescentiis subcapituliformibus, apice ramulorum congestis; 
spicis breve pedunculatis basi bibracteatis, rachidibus pubescentibus; bracteis 
foliaceis, bracteolis unifloris, lineari-setaceis, pilosulis; flos masc. non evolutus; 
flos foem.: pedicellis brevibus, sepala utrinque stellulato tomentosis, 3 
anterioribus magnis, ovato-lanceolatis, pinnatisectis, 2 posterioribus minori- 
bus, integris, setaceo-linearibus; disci glandulis 3 anterioribus cohaerentibus, 
subacutis, glabris, posterioribus obsoletis; ovario globoso, stellato-tomentoso, 
stylis bis dichotomis, cruribus longissimis, tenuibus, pilosis. Et caetera 
ignota. 

Frutex usque ad 2m. altus. Petioli 0.7—1.5 cm. longi; laminae 4.5-10 cm. 
longae, 2-7 cm. latae. Stipulae 1-1.5 cm. longae. Pedunculi primarii 
7-8 cm., secundarii (spicarum) 0.5-2 cm.; pedicelli florum foeminorum 
usque ad 0.5 mm. longi. Bracteae 2—2.5 cm., bracteolae 0.8—1.2 cm. longae. 
Sepala majora circa 9.5.mm. longa, 4.5-5 mm. lata. Styli plus minusve 7 
mm. longi. ; 

Yaracuy: Between La Piedra and Yaritagua, in bushes; flowers 
September 18th, 1923 (Pittzer 11175, type). 


Belongs to Sect. Oligonychia, and is perhaps closely allied with Julocroton 
montevidensis Muell.-Arg., differing mainly in the very long acuminate leaves 
with shorter petioles, and in the less divided styles. 


Manihot filamentosa Pittier, sp. nov. 


Arbuscula glaberrima, trunco brevi, ramoso, brunneo, ramis cinereis, 
efoliatis, ramulis glaucescentibus, stipulis parvis, lanceolatis subulatisve, 
apice plus minusve denticulatis, deciduis; foliis apice ramulorum congestis, 
longe petiolatis, membranaceis, petiolis gracilibus, laminis vulgo longioribus, 
purpurascentibus, laminis plus minusve ovato-reniformibus, fere ad basin 
5-lobulatis, basi late emarginatis minute bistipellatis, supra obscure viridis, 
subtus glaucescentibus, reticulatis, costis prominentibus venis venulisque 
vix prominulis, lobis penninerviis, sinuato-lyratis, lobulis apice plus minusve 
rotundatis, longe acuminatis acutissimis, exterioribus interdum auriculatis, 
saepe integris; stipellis subulatis; inflorescentiis terminalibus, ramulosis, 
ramulis longe pedunculatis; floribus pedicellatis, virescentibus, pendulis; 
pedicellis basi 2-bracteolatis, bracteolis subulatis; florcbus masculis: pedicellis 
longiusculis; alabastris ovoideis, angulosis; calyce campanulato, lobulis late 
ovatis, brevissime acutatis, marginibus introflexis; disci glandulis plus minusve 


12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 


coalitis; staminibus 10, liberis, filamentis longissimis convoluto-flexuosis, 5 
exterioribus longioribus, omnium glabris, antheris lineari-oblongis; florzbus 
foemineis masculis majoribus; lobulis fere usque ad basin liberis, anguste 
lanceolatis, acuminatis, marginibus introflexis; discus annularis; ovario 
ovoideo, 6-carinato, glabro, stigmatibus brevibus biseriatim flabellatis; 
capsula globosa, pedicello apicem versus gradatim incrassato. 

Arbuscula (fide Saer) 2-3 m. alta. Stipulae 4-6 mm. longae. Petioli 
6-23 em. longi; laminae 6—14 cm. longae, 9-15 em. latae; lobulo mediano 6-13 
em. longo, 3.5-6 em. lato, infimi 4-7.5 em. longi, 2-3.5 cm. lati. Inflores- 
centiae partiales 10-12 cm. longae, pedunculi circa 7 cm., pedicelli 8-10 mm. 
longi; bracteolae 4 mm. longae. Flos masc.: calyx 10 mm. longus, lobulis 
cirea 4.5 mm. longis, 4-4.5 mm. latis; fllamenta longiora circa 15 mm., bre- 
viora 5 mm. longa; antherae bene evolutae 4-5.2 mm. longae. Flos foem.: 
calyx 9-11 mm. longus, lobulis 6.5-7.5 mm. longis, 2-3 mm. latis. Capsula 
(non bene evoluta?) 17 mm. longa, 18 mm. diam., pedicello 15 mm. longo. 

Lara: Scattered in sandy thorn-bushes along the La Ruesga (mostly dry) 
River in the vicinity of Barquisimeto; flowers and fruits August 20, 1929 
(J. Saer d’Héguert 366, type); same locality, flowers April 1925 (same collector; 
191). 


Closely allied to W. carthagenensis (Jaeq.) Muell.-Arg., but differs in the 
description of the leaves, in the longer, denticulate stipules, and more 
especially in the stamens with very long filaments and elongate, almost 
linear anthers. I am indebted to Mr. Saer d’Héguert for several interesting 
details taken from the live plant and for the communication of the common 
name, Yuca sibidiqua. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


The 993d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 25, 1929. 

Program: L. W. Tiuton, Variations in the optical density of glass —Most 
optical glasses are not sufficiently homogeneous to obviate compensatory 
figuring of the surfaces of certain highly corrected optical systems. These 
variations in the optical properties of good glass are matters of the fifth 
and sixth decimal places of index of refraction. They have been generally 
considered as due to unavoidable differences in chemical composition. It 
has, however, been shown by Tool and others that the properties of glass, as 
measured at ordinary temperatures, are dependent on the character of the 
heat treatments to which the glass has been subjected. Some quantitative 
relationships between refractive index and effective annealing temperature 
have been recently determined. Furthermore, in the case of a barium flint 
glass, 90% of the existing optical heterogeneity was removed by special 
reannealings under iso-thermic conditions. 

It is now of interest to inquire as to whether the uniformity of optical glass 
in general may be improved by more careful annealings. Local variations 
in the index of refraction of samples from six types of optical glass were 
measured by a prism method and the corresponding index gradients were 
computed. The values so obtained for these specimens of ordinary crown, 


JAN. 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 13 


medium flint, and dense flint were, respectively, 0.6, 2.4, and 2.3 x 107° 
percm. They were all lower than the gradients found in borosilicate crown, 
light barium crown, and dense barium crown, v72., 4.9, 3.1, and 3.7 & 107° 
per cm., respectively. Considering only two categories in classing these six 
types of glass, it is found that the group which has the low index gradients is 
identical with the group which has low index sensitivity to differences in 
effective annealing temperature. Apparently there is a significant correlation 
existing here. The index deviations can not be due entirely to differences in 
chemical composition, and it may be inferred that more careful annealings 
will greatly decrease the existing heterogeneities in all of these glasses. 

By way of confirmation, Gifford’s data on the existing limits of uniformity 
in optical glass were analyzed in a similar way, and with the same result. 

When considering this encouraging prospect for increased uniformity in 
optical glass, it is well to remember, however, that the index variations now 
existing over distances of several centimeters in the best glass correspond to 
differences of only 1°C. or less in effective annealing temperature. Con- 
sequently, there are difficult problems in connection with the practical 
execution of sufficiently iso-thermic annealings. (Auwthor’s abstract.) Discus- 
sed by Hryt, Gisu, L. H. ApAms, and PRIzEsv. 

E. G. AnpERSON, Colored light measurements on various photometers.— 
Four different photometers were used to measure the light transmission of red, 
orange-amber, green and blue filters. Each of ten observers made two sets 
of measurements on each filter, the measurements being made on different 
days. Each observer made from five to ten individual observations in each 
set of measurements. The average deviations of the individual observations 
from the observer’s mean, for each set of measurements were 3.0, 4.2, 4.5, and 
4.5 per cent, respectively, for the Ives-Kingsbury, Flicker, Weber, Martens, 
and the Standard Lummer-Brodhun photometers. The average deviations 
of the means of each set of measurements from the mean of the two were 3.1, 
5.0, 4.1 and 5.0 per cent respectively, for the photometers named in the same 
order as above. ‘The results indicate that the measurements on the Weber 
and Martens might well be adjusted for a normal or average observer by the 
method of Ives and Crittenden for flicker measurements. The adjustment 
of the Lummer-Brodhun measurements appear to be less definite. (Author’s 
abstract.) Discussed by Prirst and L. H. Apams. 

Haruan W. Fisx, Secular variation of magnetic intensity and its accelerations 
in Pacific countries—Charts showing the lines of equal annual change in the 
horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field have been prepared in 
detail for various parts of the world by investigators in the countries chiefly 
concerned, but it is difficult to combine these small charts into a chart of the 
whole Earth, chiefly since they refer to different epochs. World-charts have 
been prepared, such as that given as an inset on the British Admiralty chart 
of “Curves of Equal Horizontal Force,’”’ but these show the general trend of 
the changes over large areas, and omit details which the latest observations 
have disclosed. In a previous discussion the author pointed out that in the 
Western Hemisphere there are two distinct centers, or “foci,’’ around which 
the rate of annual decrease of horizontal intensity is large, one of these foci 
being in southern Argentina, and of greater intensity in the West Indies. 
Separating these along the Amazon Valley there is a belt within which up to 
about the year 1917, the horizontal intensity was increasing, but since that 
date has been decreasing at a low rate in the west, and increasing slightly 
along the Atlantic coast. Hence the lines of equal annual change of this 
element on a chart of the Western Hemisphere take the form of two series of 


14. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 


concentric ovals which seem to undergo alternate dilation and contraction, 
in part but not wholly, in phase with the sunspot cycle. 

An analogous condition was found to exist in the Eastern Hemisphere. A 
negative center (around which the horizontal component is decreasing) exists 
in western Siberia, but in the southern part of the hemisphere there are two 
such centers, one of extremely rapid change south of Cape Town, and a second 
of less intensity west of Australia. In southern India there is a center around 
which the horizontal intensity is increasing, and which offers especially 
favorable conditions for investigation because of the number of active ob- 
servatories in the vicinity. When the mean annual values of horizontal 
intensity from the reports of an observatory near one of these foci of rapid 
change have been suitably smoothed and plotted, it is found that the resulting 
rate-curves are very dissimilar, even for observatories comparatively near 
together. The contrast is even more striking when the acceleration-curves 
are compared. The acceleration-curves for Sitka, Honolulu and Christchurch 
(New Zealand), all of which are remote from foci of rapid change, are very 
similar and all bear a close resemblance to the smoothed sunspot curve for the 
same years. When a composite of these three acceleration-curves from such 
widely separated observatories is plotted, and upon it is superposed a curve 
made by plotting the departure of the annual sunspot numbers from the mean 
number for the years under discussion, it is found in general that the accelera- 
tions are positive as long as the number of sunspots is greater than the mean 
number, and becomes negative when the number falls below the mean. This 
is not in agreement with the widely accepted principle, that the apparent 
secular rate increases as the number of spots decreases, and vice versa. 

Acceleration-curves for stations within the area of rapid annual change 
show other characteristics which seem to be superimposed upon the typical 
changes which are concurrent with the sunspot cycle and exemplified by the 
three observatories named. By use of the observatory reports and available 
field-observations, it was possible to construct the lines of equal annual change 
around the positive center in the vicinity of Ceylon as they were in 1918. 
With much less data it was possible to draw the same lines in the positions 
occupied in 1906. Consideration of the positions occupied by these lines as 
the center passed from southern China to Ceylon furnishes an explanation 
of the apparent inconsistencies in the acceleration-curves for neighboring 
observatories. For illustration, as the center passed very near Toungoo, the 
annual rate increased very rapidly on its approach and diminished correspond- 
ingly as it receded; Barrackpore on the other hand was so situated with respect 
to the path of the center that it remained between the same two contours, and 
therefore experienced a very small change in rate. In a similar way the 
differences in the acceleration and rate-curves for the Soviet observatories 
near the negative center in western Siberia can be accounted for. 

It is probable therefore that these areas within which the annual change of 
horizontal intensity is large, are undergoing changes of various kinds. There 
is an alternate expansion and contraction, in phase with the sunspot cycle, 
and a continual shift of position accompanied by alterations inform. Whether 
such areas disappear altogether to reappear elsewhere, it is not possible at 
present to say. That high rates of change should continue in a given locality 
for long periods is improbable because of the unreasonable distortions in the 
distribution of the element which would result. For example, the horizontal 
intensity at Cape Town has diminished by more than 16 per cent in the past 
30 years. Should the same rate of decrease be maintained for 150 years more, 


JAN. 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 15 


that component would vanish, creating the conditions of a magnetic south 
pole at that place. Whether the movement of these areas on opposite sides 
of the Earth are in any way connected has not thus far been disclosed, and 
unfortunately the present means for collecting the data necessary for a satis- 
factory solution of the problem are far from sufficient. (Author’s abstract). 


Discussed by GIsH. 
Oscar 8. ApAMs, Recording Secretary. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


The 412th meeting was held at 8 p.m., Thursday, June 6, 1929, in the 
National Museum. In the absence of the president and first vice-president, 
Mr. F.C. BisHorp, the second vice-president, presided. ‘There were present 
29 members and 22 visitors. Mr. Frank D. DEGANT, Cleveland, Ohio, was 
elected to membership. 

The first feature on the regular program was an informal address by Dr. 
L. O. Howarp, entitled ‘Observations on some entomologists and their work, 
during a recent western trip.”’ He outlined briefly the work being done 
by a considerable number of entomological workers met by him during 
his recently completed tour of certain portions of the West. Among these 
were the entomologists at New Orleans, La.,—Ho.LiLoway in his work with 
sugar cane insects, and Buiss in his investigations of the camphor scale. 
During the time spent in California inspections were made of the activities of 
CAMPBELL, STONE, SMITH, TIMBERLAKE, QUAYLE, BoypmEN, and others at 
Alhambra, Riverside, and various other places in southern California. An 
auto trip was then taken to San Francisco and Berkeley, where contacts were 
made with VAN DuzeEE, VAN Dyk, BLAISDELL, EVERMANN, HERMS, SEVERIN, 
STANDLEY, FREEBORN, and others, and inspections were made of the sugar 
leafhopper work and the recent accessions to the Museum there. While at 
Berkeley, Dr. Howard received from the University of California the honor- 
ary degree of “LL.D” and was guest of honor at a banquet at which over 
70 entomologists were present. While in Oregon, inspection was made of the 
work of Mote, ATWELL, and others on European earwig, and of Rockwoop, 
REEHER, and others on cereal and forage pests, and while in Washington 
State with that of KincaprE, Hatcu, Doucntt, Spricut, and others. While 
en route homeward, stops were made with such State workers as CHAPMAN, 
RinEy, Wiuson, Mzrcatr, Fuint, Hayns, Batpurr, FRison, and others at 
the Universities of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Illinois. Dr. Howard com- 
pared the scope and character of the present day entomological work with 
that of the limited field and restricted activities of early workers, and had 
only words of earnest praise for, and appreciation of, the work now being done, 
and dwelt with hearty enthusiasm upon the prospects for the future in en- 
tomological work. A number of slides of the entomologists under considera- 
tion were shown. Discussed by BisHopp, McInpoo, GAHAN, Morrison, 
and RoHWER. 

The next feature on the program was an informal address by R. E. Snop- 
GRASS, entitled “Reviews of some European literature on insect morphology.”’ 
This was a brief resume of some of the more important recent items 
which had come to his attention of entomological literature dealing with 
morphology. These included certain papers by WEBER, DENis, Morison, 
JACKSON, and Uvarov. Separates of the pavers were exhibited. Discussed 
by Howarp, CampBeLL, Ronwer, and BisHopp. 


16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 


Dr. WILLIAM ScuHaus reported briefly on the recent accession by the Na- 
tional Museum of the collection of Lepidoptera recently presented by the 
Brooklyn Museum of Arts and Sciences. He was in Brooklyn from April 8 
to 15 packing the collection and making arrangements for its shipment by 
truck. It contains a considerable number of very valuable types of species 
described by SmitH, Grote, HuttzeE, Harry Epwarps and others. The 
entire collection comprises over 900 drawers and is valued at over $60,000. 
It contains, among others, the Nomogan collection valued at $10,000. 

The bequest to the National Museum by the late Col. Wirt Rosinson, 
of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, was reported by H. 8. BARBER, 
whose duty it had been to prepare the insect collection for transportation to 
Washington. Col. Robinson’s interest in Natural History had built up a 
large collection of insects, besides birds and mammals, and he had erected 
a private museum near his residence overlooking the James River at Wingina, 
Va., where he had intended to devote his leisure to their study. By his un- 
timely death only three months after retirement and just at the beginning 
of this long contemplated leisure we have lost the chance of such discoveries 
as his ardent, experienced industry would surely have made in this neglected 
section of Virginia. The collection of beetles was arranged in about 150 large 
drawers and is rich in unstudied material. His great liberality to students 
resulted in his having no types but original series (probably paratypes) of 
such of his discoveries as Arthromacra robinsoni Leng, Anthonomus robinsont 
Blatchley, Pzezocorynus virginiae Leng, Gyrohypnus davis: Notman, ete., 
besides certain very rare forms such as the third known U. 8. example of 
Enoclerus viduus (Klug) (synonym, Clerus jouteli Leng), are added to the 
National collection. The occurrence of Lucanus elaphus in central Virginia 
is demonstrated by four males and a female from near Wingina. The bulk 
of the material was collected by him either near West Point, N. Y., or Win- 
gina, Va., but he also collected in Panama, Jamaica, Cuba, and elsewhere. 

Mr. BisHopr reported that an investigation recently had been started of 
parasites of reindeer in Alaska, and that Dr. W. E. Doves had been assigned 
to the problem, and would sail from Seattle on June 8 for Alaska, where a 
laboratory would be established at Nome in coéperation with the territorial 
government and the U.S. Biological Survey, with PALMER at Fairbanks and 
MILLER at Nome. 

J.S. Wave, Recording Secretary 


Obituary 


Rey. Francis ANTHONY Tonporr, 8. J., Professor of Physics and Director 
of the Seismological Observatory at Georgetown University, and a member 
of the AcapEMy, died on November 29, 1929, at:the age of 59 years. He was 
born in Boston, Mass. , and received the degree of A.B. from Woodstock, Md., 
College in 1895, and Ph. D. from Georgetown in 1914. He was an eminent 
ue nerey. © on seismolog gy and related subjects. 


INTS OF THE ‘ 
AFFILIATED D SOCIETIES 





Bar Saree UI otk CL 
‘wt he aS 2 oS ae. 4" 
1% i oF ingeet WO ot it ¥ 

Lies \ “ 


CONTENTS | 












Jy Baa MOR AEH) ecek eS “see ss OE Ea 


Botany.—Botanical notes on, and descriptions of, new and old species o 
zuelan plants.—III. Old and new species of Rupherbinceas (Conel ! 
PROPER. coe. ae OR a bee bee ee eee teen ee 

-PRocEEDINGS : i iy 

The Philosophical Society. eee sees ee ease ects eeeeeceee ree eteten 

The Entomélogical, Society: et oe ce ess » See 


Osrruary: F. A. Aue 


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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. 
President: Auzs Hnoutdica U. S. Ni onal Museum. 


JANUARY 18, 1980 No. 2 





= | a ‘OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
| OF SCIENCES 





BOARD OF EDITORS 


JOHN B. REESIDE, JR. Epg@ar W. WoouarD — EpGar T. WHERRY 
: NATIONAL MUSEUM GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS 
g 
s ASSOCIATE EDITORS 
L. H. ApAmMs 8. A. Ronwtr 
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY : ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
E, A. GotpMan G. W. Stross 
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
5 AGneEs CHASE J. R. Swanton 
BOTANICAL SOCIETY 5 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


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CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


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Von. 20 JANUARY 18, 19380 No. 2 


GEOPHYSICS.—Hypotheses on the development of the earth.: B. 
GUTENBERG, Frankfort a/M. (Communicated by W. D. Lam- 
BERT. ) 


The hypotheses that have been made as to the evolution of the earth 
involve a great many assumptions. In general there are four groups 
of these: the condition of the earth at the moment when the assumed 
forces began to act, the forces themselves, the mode of action of the 
forces and the condition of the interior of the earth today. 

_ The usual method has been to search for a single force that might 

have effected all the changes in the earth’s crust, and then to try to 
explain all of them by this one force. But that method, of which the 
best example is the hypothesis of contraction, is not sound. We must 
try to find out all the forces that can produce changes in the structure 
of the earth and the effects themselves. Only by applying this method 
can we solve our problem. 

The researches on the forces that act have given the following re- 
sults. We have: 

Chemical forces and gravity: They formed the different shells of the 
earth and the changes due to chemical causes continue to occur in the 
crust of the earth. 

We have cosmical forces: They are difficult to state. The most 
important are the tidal forces, which seem to have caused the separa- 
tion of the moon from the earth. 

Forces, the importance of which seems to have been overlooked are 
those caused by the deviation of the earth’s crust from hydrostatic pres- 
sure. The higher continents try to move toward the oceans. These 
forces are of the order of 10° dynes per square centimeter (dynes /em?). 

1 Received November 26, 1929. These hypotheses are to be more fully explained and 
developed in the Handbuch der Geophysik, Band 8. 

17 


18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 2 


Other important forces are those caused by the cooling of the earth 
and the crystallizing of the matter in the earth’s interior. Both together 
effect a contraction of the circumference of the earth of the order of 
2 cm. in a century. 

Movements of masses, which disturb the equilibrium of the earth’s 
crust, are caused by erosion and sedimentation. 

The difference of height between the center of gravity of the con- 
tinents and the matter that forms the bottom of the oceans causes 
the ‘‘Polflucht’”’ forces, which strive to move the continents against the 
equator with a force of the order of 107 dynes/cm.?. 

To the greater forces belong, finally, the stresses caused by movements 
of the earth’s crust relative to the axes of the earth. 

All other forces seem to have no influence on the great changes in 
the figure and the state of the earth. This seems to hold in the case 
of the forces causing a westerly drift which are due to tidal friction, 
and, according to Schweydar,? to the precession of continents. In the 
latter case the complete analysis seems not to have been made, and it 
appears to me to be not impossible that such a force is very small or 
does not exist at all. Local chemical and physical occurrences are the 
causes of local voleanic events. Finally small stresses are caused by 
the movements of the poles with a period of one year and the Newcomb 
period, by the changes of air pressure, by tides and changes of the water 
level, by formation and melting of ice, by denudation and other similar 
forces. They have only a little effect. In some cases they are the 
“trigger” forces that cause breaking of the earth’s crust and earth- 
quakes, and in others they cause changes of level, for instance the 
uplift of Scandinavia. 

The original state of the earth is unknown, but we can suppose that 
at an early time it was a hot amorphous body the crystallizing point 
of which was nowhere attained and which possessed relatively little 
strength. Nevertheless even at that time the incompressibility and 
rigidity might have been of the same order as today. 

Now gravity acted on the matter and caused the heavier material 
to be pushed down near the center. In addition there was a chemical 
separation which, according to Goldschmidt,’ acted in a similar man- 
ner as the processes taking place in a blast furnace. Both events 
together caused the division of the matter into the core, the intermedi- 
ate layer and the mantle. In subsequent time the difference of 
density between core and intermediate layer prevented the mixture 


?W.Scuweypar. Zeitschr. Ges. Erdkunde (Berlin) 1921: 123. 
*V.M. Goupscumipt. Naturwissenschaften 10: 918. 1922. 


JAN. 18, 1930 GUTENBERG: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARTH 19 


of these two parts and the existence of currents between them, and we 
may suppose that the core of the earth is today in the same state as 
after its formation. In the outer shell, however, currents might have 
been caused by thermal and chemical events, which continue today. 

At an early time when this occurred, the tides of the earth caused 
by the sun seem to have come into resonance with the period of free 
vibration of the earth, and, according to the researches of Jeffreys, 
it seems possible that in this way one tide rose so high that a portion 
of the earth was torn away and formed the moon. In the region 
where it was formed, the outer shell of the earth was removed, hot 
magma rose from the deeper parts to the earth’s crust which had 
cooled to such a degree that its strength was great enough to prevent 
currents. Before the formation of the moon, the earth’s crust prob- 
ably had been nearly in a hydrostatic equilibrium. Now this was 
disturbed, and from that moment we have one part of the earth’s 
crust with a sialic shell and another part without it, where the moon 
was removed from the outer shell. The bottom of the Pacific seems 
to be the remaining part of this region which was denuded of sial, 
while other parts are still covered by sial. 

The sialic part of the earth’s crust must have a higher surface than 
the region from which the moon has been removed, because the matter 
of the deeper layers which entered the gap was heavier. ‘These de- 
pressed parts of the earth’s crust were filled by water which had con- 
densed and caused a sinking down of the bottom of the ocean and up- 
lift of the continental parts, so that the difference of height between 
ocean and continent grew larger.’ Now the forces that tend to bring 
about equilibrium of the earth’s crust increased. They are given by 
the following formula: 


foe — (p — bh) ge h =2-10°-h dynes/cm.? 


where P = hydrostatic pressure; p = average density of the rocks; 
g = gravity; and h = average height of rocks above the average 
height of the bottom of the sea, the water of the latter being assumed 
to have the depth h and p = 1; the configuration of the coast is with- 
out influence. 

At the time before these forces caused an increase of the continental 
part of the earth’s crust, the height of the continents above the bottom 
of the ocean was probably greater than today, but even if we accept 


‘H. Jerrreys. The Earth. Ed. 2, Cambridge, 1929. 
°Cf. T. Gesztr. Gerland’s Beitr. Geophys. 22: 353. 1929, 


20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 2 


5 km., we get Pmax = 10° dynes per square centimeter. The average 
strength of the earth’s crust (cf. Jeffreys, note 4) today is of the order 
of 5.10° dynes/cem?. It is therefore to be expected that in the course 
of time the continental matter in the regions with less strength would 
flow and spread. ‘This event must have occurred in such a manner 
that the isostatic equilibrium was maintained, that is to say, for any 
two arbitrarily chosen columns with a height Z of the order of 100 


kilometers, 
h 
\ pdZ 


must have the same value. In the case of a homogeneous layer of 
sial overlying a homogeneous mass of sima with densities p, and p, 
respectively, as shown in the accompanying diagram, the following 
relations must exist: 


Surface of the earth 
yo. 
L N\ 
( 
x{ 
( 





| 


EEE a ee ES 


i 
| 
| 
| 
| 





| sial 
sial | 
| 


hi 4 
Pl 





Pl 


ie] 
ie 
B 
© 
it 





@*6 (0) 6 \s''9) 0 sie [el'e\/e evan rs 


sima 
p2 





| hy 
bp: + hip: = h pi Le ps = pi (hy — hy) Mp2 = pr (he — hy +x +p) 
wi(x +) = piip, wix = pi: (pe: — pi) 


Then, since p, is much greater than p,—p,, » is much greater than x; in 
other words, in places where the layer of sial has grown thinner, this 
must generally happen in the lower parts where sima must enter. 


JAN. 18, 19830 GUTENBERG: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARTH 21 


Now the researches of Taylor, Wegener, Koppen® and others show 
that observations of many different sorts are readily explained only 
with the assumption that all continents were one entire complex 
in earlier geological times and have moved apart one from the other 
and do so even today. But contrary to Wegener,’ I think that this 
happened by flowing as an effect of hydrostatic pressure and not by 
fissuring.® 





Figure 1. Development of the continents (+ = Europe) 
a. Carboniferous; b. Cretaceous; c. Hocene; d. Quaternary 


We do not know what was the position of the continental block 
immediately after the formation of themoon. The equilibrium of the 
earth’s crust was completely disturbed and stresses were caused which 
tended to come into equilibrium. This must have been a period of 
great movements. ‘There is not enough climatic evidence that can 
be used to determine the position of the different parts of the earth’s 
surface. ‘The first geological epoch in which some quiet seems to have 
been restored was the Carboniferous. All climatic evidence seems to 
show, as Képpen, Wegener and others have found, that at this time 
nearly the whole complex of continents was situated in the southern 
hemisphere of the earth. (Fig. 1.) Under the action of the hydro- 
static forces of the earth this block began to drift apart. At the same 
time the Polflucht forces tended to move the entire block over its base 
in such a manner that the integral of all these forces became zero, so 
that'the masses of the continental block situated north of the equator 

6 KOPPEN UND WEGENER, Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit. Berlin, 1924. 


7A.WxcGENER. Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane. Aufl. 4, 1929. 
8B. GutenperG. Gerland’s Beitr. Geophys. 16: 239. 1927; 18: 225. 1927. 


22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 2 


were of the same order as the masses south of it. This state now has 
been reached with some approximation. The movements must cause 
high mountains at the borders of the block, as actually observed. 

In this case we must take into consideration that today the limits 
of the continental block are given by the western coast of North and 
South America, Antarctica, New Zealand, the Tonga Islands, New 
Guinea, the Philippines and Japan. All parts of the earth’s crust 
between these limits, according toseismological researches, seem to have 
the same structure, and only the thickness of the layer of sial varies. 
It is less in the bottom of the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans. On the 
other hand, the limits of the Pacific are sharply marked by very great 
absorption of the surface waves.* The varying friction on the base of 
the block, which surely is of lesser order than the strength of the differ- 
ent parts, caused variations in the flow. Alsoa great deal of the earth’s 
crust was too strong to permit flowing at all. In such a manner the 
difference of the thickness of the uppermost layer was caused. 

Besides these motive powers there are apparently some kinds of 
forces which strive to move the earth’s crust westward, but as has been 
said, these seem to have been small. 

During the action of these forces, the cooling of the earth’s crust 
was proceeding, crystallization was going on, and the deeper layers of 
the earth’s crust (say between 50 and 200 kilometers, as a first approxi- 
mation) contracted, so that the outer shell had to fit the diminishing 
base. The stresses arising in this manner accumulated. Only in 
the outermost parts of the shell can they be equalized by breaking and 
movements of the broken parts. In the deeper regions, in general, 
there are movements by flow which begin as soon as the forces exceed 
the strength, which differs in different parts of the earth’s crust. The 
smallest strength is in the weak parts of the earth, which are the bound- 
aries of the different layers, notably the borders of the Pacific. It is 
there that the movements compensating the stresses caused by con- 
traction must be most noticeable. These movements of shrinking are 
accompanied by outflow of magma. Indeed the whole borders of the 
Pacific are covered by volcanoes and signs of magmatic action have 
occurred at different geological epochs. 

But other factors have also influenced the events. There exist 
a great many other forces!® which cause stresses superimposed upon 
those caused by cooling. Where all these stresses act in the same 
direction, movements must reach their maximum. On the other hand 


* B. GUTENBERG. Handb. Geophys. 4: Lief. 1. 1929. 
10 B. GuTenBERG. Handb. Geophys. 3: Abschn. 1. 1930. 


JAN. 18, 19830 GUTENBERG: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARTH © 23 


the strength of the earth’s crust was influenced by different events. 
Movements of the poles, or movements of the earth’s crust relative to 
its base, caused regressions and transgressions, as the water at once 
assumes any new position of equilibrium. Furthermore, sedimenta- 
tion was greatest in the regions of transgression, and caused new sink- 
ing of the bottom of these regions. In all places where sedimentation 
occurred, there must have taken place compensating movements of 
flow in deeper regions. ‘The masses pressed down reached hotter parts, 
melting began below such parts of the earth’s crust, and a geosyncline, 
an extremely weak zone, was formed. One recognizes that in such a 
manner the weakness and the strength were modified in the different 
parts of the continental block. Especially is it evident that in certain 
regions sedimentation was relatively very great, and that even there 
weak zones were formed. If now the forces assumed greater pro- 
portions and the strength was exceeded, these zones were pressed out 
and mountains were formed. During all these events isostasy was 
maintained as nearly as possible by movements in the deeper layers. 
On the other hand there originated thick layers of sediments, vast 
regions of which, with thicknesses of many kilometers, being laterally 
pressed together to depths of ten or even more kilometers. 

I think that in this way all attributes of geosynclines are explained 
in the most simple manner and in connection with the great events of 
the history of the earth’s surface. The material of these geosynclines 
being pressed out forms, as we have seen, a smaller but thicker region 
of rocks. ‘Therefore it is not permissible from the thickness of these 
layers to draw conclusions about the original thickness, and it is not 
necessary to base calculations upon sedimentation of so great a thick- 
ness as has usually been done. 

After this event the geosyncline has lost its mobility and the weak 
zone has disappeared. ‘The mountains thus formed are very steep, 
denudation has abnormally great values, and sedimentation increases 
near the new coast, the conditions there being then favorable to the 
formation of a new geosyncline, running nearly parallel to the pre- 
ceding one. 

Now we will turn back to the forces that press out the weak zones 
and form the geosynclines. First we have the stresses caused by 
shrinking of the earth’s crust. They are superimposed on forces 
caused by the Poljlucht, which press together the northern and southern 
parts of the continental block in the neighborhood of the equator, 
where they tend to produce an elevation with a height of twenty meters. 
The stresses caused in this way are entirely insufficient to produce any 


24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 2 


motions as they are only of the order of one hundredth of the strength, 
but they enhance the effect of the stresses caused by the contraction, 
with the result that these stresses reach their maximum to the north 
and to the south of the equator and are directed against it. | 

Generally the first motions caused by these stresses must arise in 
a geosyncline in the neighborhood of the equator, and must produce 
mountains nearly parallel to it which extend over large regions. In 
these regions the geosynclines were pressed out, as has been pointed 
out. This happens not only at the outside of the earth’s crust, but 
also on the inside, approximately according to the laws of isotasy. 
Unterstromungen,—currents in the deeper layers,—were produced to 
maintain the equilibrium, as nearly as possible. The motion extended 
over larger regions, but by degrees the stresses caused by contraction 
became exhausted. The Polflucht forces remained unaltered. They 
could affect some motions in the disturbed regions, but finally all was 
solidified, strength reached its normal value, the motions ceased, the 
initial conditions recurred, an epoch of the revolution of the history 
of the earth had passed and, during subsequent time, only epirogenic 
movements took place. 

In the following epochs the stresses caused by the cooling of the 
earth accumulate anew and finally a new orogenic period begins, but 
now according to the changes of the position of the equator and other 
regions in the neighborhood of the new equator. ‘These parallel 
changes of the position of the equator and the zones of mountain build- 
ing can be easily traced in the case of Europe, where both travelled 
southward during the later geological epochs. 

My sketch of the evolution of the earth has come toitsend. Ithink 
I have shown how it can be explained on the basis of forces that must: 
be expected according to theory, and is in good agreement with a 
great deal of observation. Let me now put a last question: What will 
be the further evolution of the earth? The continental block is at 
present lying nearly symmetrical to the equator. Therefore it is not 
probable that great movements of this block as a whole will arise. In 
other words, it is improbable that the poles will make greater move- 
ments relative to the earth’s crust. Indeed observations of Lambert4 
and others have shown that these movements today are very small and 
that their direction is opposite to that we have found for the preced- 
ing geological epochs. The changes of climate during the last epoch, 
the glacial period, have nothing to do with our problem. ‘They are 


1W.D. Lampert. Astron. Journ. 34: 107. 1922. 


JAN. 18, 1930 WHERRY: A LONG LOST PHLOX 25 


caused by changes of the astronomical elements of the earth (cf. 
Képpen and Wegener, footnote 6). 

The motions caused by hydrostatic pressure continue, though dimin- 
ishing a little according to the degree of spreading out of the continen- 
tallayer. The distances between the different points of the continents 
must increase and the surface of the stretched regions must continue 
to sink. Probably the sinking of the western coast of Europe is an 
accompanying effect of these events. Finally stresses caused by the 
shrinking of the earth and the Poljflucht forces accumulate until a new 
orogenic period begins and new mountain building sets in, in the neigh- 
borhood of the equator. It may be stated that there is a great differ- 
ence between the events in the interior of the continental block,—for 
example, in Europe, where Polflucht forces and shrinking work together 
—and in the borders of the block,—the coast of the Pacific, where as in 
the case of America the shrinking stresses are compensated together 
with the hydrostatic movements which continue to act nearly un- 
altered. 


BOTANY .—A long lost Phlox... Epcar T. WHERry, Washington, 
DEC: 


The herbarium of Samuel B. Buckley, now at the Missouri Botanical 
Garden in St. Louis, includes a specimen of Phlox labelled ‘Phlox 
No. 2, Mts. White Sulphur Springs, Va. June, 1838.’’ This bears a 
superficial resemblance to P. pilosa, but closer examination shows that 
Buckley was right in declining to ascribe it to that or any other recog- 
nized species. How this striking plant escaped the attention of the 
many botanists who visited the region around White Sulphur Springs 
(now in West Virginia) during the subsequent three quarters of a 
century is amystery, but the fact remains that it is not included inany 
collection made during that period to which the writer has had access, 
nor is it mentioned in Maillspaugh’s flora of the state. This Phlox 
was first rediscovered by Miss Marian 8. Franklin of Lewisburg about 
1919, and specimens collected by her near White Sulphur Springs are 
preserved in the Gray Herbarium (September 4, 1920, in fruit) and 
the herbarium of the University of Pennsylvania (May 22, 1922). 
It had been labeled P. pilosa, and when I first saw it in the field, during 
a vacation trip in 1923, the same misidentification was made. Early 
in June, 1929, on another visit to the region, in the company of Mr. 


1 Received December 15, 1929. 


26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 2 


J. E. Benedict, Jr., its relationships were worked out, and several 
stations for it were discovered. ‘The data obtained justify announcing 
it as an independent species, which seems appropriately named: 


Phlox buckleyi Wherry, sp. nov. 


Plant perennial, with one or more decumbent stems 3 to 20 cm. long, each 
bearing at the tip a closely set group of long narrow evergreen leaves, from 
the midst of which arises the erect flowering shoot, 15 to 40 cm. tall, with 3 
to 7 nodes below the inflorescence; stem glabrous below and increasingly 
glandular-pubescent upward; leaves glabrate, or the upper more or less 
pubescent, opposite, the blades thickish, sessile, acuminate; lower leaves 
linear to somewhat lanceolate or oblanceolate, often ensiform, mostly 50 to 
125 mm. long and 2 to 5 mm. wide, the upper ones ranging from short lanceo- 
late at the base of the flowering shoot, to linear-lanceolate, up to 80 mm. long 
and 8 mm. wide, near the middle, and to broadly lanceolate, 40 mm. long and 
12 mm. wide, toward the top; inflorescence a small to moderately large corym- 
bose or somewhat paniculate group of cymes, densely glandular-pubescent; 
bracts similar to the uppermost leaves, rapidly decreasing in size upwards; 
pedicels short; calyx 7 to 13 mm. long, the sepals united to about 2/3 their 
length, tipped with short awns; corolla-limb bright purple, usually near 
phlox or mallow purple (Ridgway’s 65 or 67 b), the eye somewhat paler and 
often bearing a purple 5-rayed star formed by deltoid patches of slightly 
deepened color toward the lobe-bases, the tube purplish violet to gray, glandu- 
lar-pubescent; petals 25 to 35 mm. long, united to 2/3 their length, the tube 
thus 17 to 23 mm. long, the obovate to nearly orbicular lobes 8 to 12 mm. long 
and 7 to 10 mm. wide, terminally truncate and entire, slightly erose, or barely 
emarginate; stamens nearly as long as the corolla-tube, or one sometimes 
longer, the average distances from tube-orifice to anther tips being respec- 
tively 0, 0.5, 2.0, 3.5, and 5.0 mm.; anthers cadmium yellow or essentially so; 
styles 14 to 20 mm. long, united to within 1 mm. of the tip, the 3 stigmas lying 
in the midst of the anthers, or slightly exserted; ovules usually 2, but sometimes 
1 or 3 per cell; capsule about 5 mm. long, 


Type locality, White Sulphur Springs, Greenbrier County, West Virginia; 
type specimen collected by S. B. Buckley in June, 1838, in herbarium of 
Missouri Botanical Garden. 


Thus far, six localities for Phlox buckleyi have been found, which, 
from west to east, are as follows: Greenbrier County, West Virginia,— 
? mile southeast of Caldwell, + mile south of White Sulphur Springs 
station (probably the site of Buckley’s original collection), and 14 
miles southeast of White Sulphur Springs village; Alleghany County, 
Virginia,—1 mile north of Alleghany station, 14 miles southeast of this 
station, and 1 mile southwest of Longdale Furnace. The maximum 
diameter of its recognized range is thus barely 40 miles (65 kilometers). 
The normal habitat at all these places is a thinly wooded slope toward 
the base of a hill of Devonian shale, the soil being usually a humus- 
rich gravel of subacid reaction. 


JAN. 18, 1930 


WHERRY: A LONG LOST PHLOX 


Figure 1. Phlox buckleyi Wherry. 


27 





28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 2 


This very distinet species belongs in a different section of the genus 
from P. pilosa, which it resembles at fitst sight, as shown by thetde- 
cumbent stems with evergreen terminal leaves, the well-united sépals, 
and the long stamens and styles. It is actually most closelyirelated 
to P. ovata, which grows in the same region, but differs in the much 
narrower leaves, the abundant glandular pubescence, and the double 
ovules; moreover, even where intimately associated, the two show no 
tendency to intergrade or to hybridize. Its aspect is brought out by 
the two photographs reproduced on page 27, the upper representing 
a habitat view taken at the locality southeast of [Caldwell, West 
Virginia, June 1, 1929, and the lower a group of pressed specimens 
from the same place, X i. The highly distinctive tufts of ensiform 
leaves suggest, as a common name for the species, Swordleaf Phlox. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


The 995th meeting was a joint meeting with the Geological Society of 
Washington, and was held in the auditorium of the Interior Department 
building, Wednesday, October 23, 1929, with Vice-President LAMBERT of the 
Philosophical Society in the chair. 

The program of the evening consisted of an illustrated address by Dr. 
BENO GUTENBERG, Professor of Geophysics at the University of Frankfurt- 
am-Main, on “‘Some hypotheses on the development of the Earth’s crust’ (pub- 
lished in this number). It was discussed by Messrs. Bow15 and H&cx. 

The 996th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November 9, 
1929. 

The program of the evening consisted of two illustrated communications: 

P. R. Hey, V. L. Carisuer, and W. F. SnypER. Absorption of sound 
at oblique angles of incidence.—The effect of oblique angles of incidence upon 
the sound absorption of a substance is a point concerning which there has 
been up to the present time no experimental evidence. Parts has published 
a theoretical discussion leading to a formula which indicates that as we pass 
from normal incidence to grazing incidence the absorption should increase 
considerably, being about 50 per cent greater at 60°. 

Experiments recently performed at the Bureau of Standards appear to 
show that the absorption of sound is independent of the angle of incidence. 

It seems probable that the error in Paris’ discussion is due to the fact that 
sound absorption is produced by friction, converting sound energy into heat. 
Friction is likely to produce rotational motion in fluids, and where rotational 
motion exists there can be no velocity potential. In consequence, the cus- 
tomary differential equation for sound motion, in which the dependent vari- 
able is the velocity potential, fails to hold in a region of sound absorption. 
(Authors’ abstract.) Discussed by HumpHreys, Hutsurt, - LITTLEHALES, 
GisH, PAWLING, and others. 


\ 


JAN. 18, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 29 


E. O. Huxsurt: Jons and electrical currents in the upper atmosphere.— 
It is assumed that the ionization in the upper atmosphere is caused by 
the ultraviolet light of the sun and that the ion and electron densities at noon 
at the equator are those required by the theory of wireless wave propagation. 
From the laws of recombination of the ions and the diffusion and drift of the 
ions in the earth’s magnetic and gravitational fields the distribution of the 
ions over the earth is worked out. This distribution turns out to be that 
required by the diamagnetic theory of the solar diurnal variation of the earth’s 
magnetism. The gravitational drift currents are found to flow mainly along 
the parallels of latitude in the following way: On the daylight hemisphere 
(1) a current sheet flowing eastward in the levels above 150 km. which at the 
sunrise and sunset longitudes divides into two sheets; (2) one of these flows 
westward on the day side of the earth underneath (1) in the levels below 150 
km., and (3) the other sheet continues eastward in the upper levels around on 
the night side of the earth. The current is mainly between the fortieth par- 
allels of latitude, north and south, and falls to lower values at the higher 
latitudes. The total currents in the three sheets are about 10’, 8 x 10° and 
2 x 10° amperes, respectively. The east and west daytime current sheets sub- 
tract from each other leaving in effect an eastward current of about 2 x 10° 
amperes flowing around the earth all the time. This causes a magnetic field 
agreeing in magnitude and type with that obtained by Bauer in his 1922 
analysis of the magnetic field of the earth of external origin. 

As a result of the drift currents, the sunset longitude of the earth is at a 
potential of several hundred volts above that of the sunrise longitude. This 
electric field combined with the earth’s magnetic field causes the ions and 
electrons on the night side of the earth to drift upward with velocities of 
order 10? cm. sec.~!. The ions and electrons move into regions of lower 
pressure and therefore do not recombine as fast as they otherwise would. 
This removes a difficulty from an earlier calculation which yielded too great 
a night-time rate of disappearance of the free charges. The upward drift of 
the ionization causes a rise of the Kennelly-Heaviside layer which is, partially 
at least, compensated by the fall due to the cooling and contraction of the 
atmosphere at night, and is complicated by the diffusion of the ions. It is 
difficult to say how much of the night-time rise of the layer observed in 
experiments with wireless rays may be genuine rise and how much may be 
an apparent rise due to delayed group velocities, or to other causes. (Author’s 
abstract.) Discussed by Gisu, L. H. Apams, and others. 


Epa@ar W. Woo.uarp, Recording Secretary pro tem. 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


455TH MEETING 


The 455th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 13, 1929, 
President Capps presiding. 

Program: Ki. W. Berry: Arctic climates as indicated by fossil plants, and a 
possible explanation. Discussed by Davip WHITE. 

REemiInGToN Ketitoce: Migration of marine mammals in relation to climate. 

W. J. Humpureys: Factors of climatic control. 


456TH MEETING 


The 456th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 27, 1929, 
President Capps presiding. 


30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 2 


Informal communications: Davin WHIT called attention to the excellent 
exposure of Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments along 16th Street above 
Florida Avenue. 

Program: H. H. Bennett: Contributions by the Bureau of Soils to the 
problem of erosion. The farm and grazing lands of the country are not in- 
exhaustible, as vast areas are subject to severe impoverishment and destruc- 
tion by unrestrained soil erosion. The normal process of soil erosion of un- 
disturbed land is insignificant compared to the accelerated washing of the 
land due to the removal of forest and brush growths, the breaking of ground 
and the matted sod of the prairies, and the destruction of herbage by over- 
grazing. Erosion, due to the latter causes, operates chiefly on the top soil, 
the most productive part of the land, and the amount of wastage depends on 
the soil, the slope, the amount and rapidity of rainfall, the crops grown and 
the methods of cultivation. On some highly erosive lands as much as one 
inch of soil may be removed in one year and it is believed that not less than 
one billion five hundred million tons of rich soil matter are swept out of the 
fields each year. The amount of plant food washed out of the fields each year 
is more than twenty times the annual loss by the crops taken from those fields. 
That lost through crops can be replaced by fertilizers and soil improving 
crops but that removed by erosion is irreplaceable. Experimental erosion 
and moisture conservation stations are being established in a number of 
major regions of varying soils and climate and various structures such as 
terraces and dams, as well as various types of vegetation, will be tested under 
field conditions in attempts to slow down the losses. 

Discussed by GoLDMAN, WHITE, PEPPERBERG, and RUBEY. 

C. N. Munns: Contributions by the Forest Service to the problems of erosion. 

Discussed by RuBEy and THOMPSON. 

C. 8. Howarp: Suspended matter in the Colorado River. Water-Supply 
Paper 636-B of the United States Geological Survey describes the methods 
of sampling and the results obtained in a study of suspended matter in the 
Colorado River from 1925 to 1928. These results, with additional data for 
1928-1929, show that the most rapid fluctuations and the largest loads oc- 
curred during the periods of the summer floods when a large proportion of the 
flow of the river was caused by rains in the semi-arid portion of the drainage 
area, The daily load of suspended matter at the Bright Angel station in the 
Grand Canyon ranged from 3,700 to 20,700,000 tons. The annual load at the 
same station ranged from 189,000,000 tons in the lowest year to 443,000,000 
tons in the highest year. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by BAKER, BEN- 
NETT, Munns, GOLDMAN, RuBEY, THOMPSON, COLLINS, and ALDEN. 


457TH MEETING 


The 457th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 11, 1929, 
President Capps presiding. Vice-President G. R. MANsFIELD took the chair 
during the presentation of the presidential address: Glaciation in Alaska. 


37TH ANNUAL MEETING 


The 37th annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the adjourn- 
ment of the 457th regular meeting, President Capps presiding. 

The annual report of the Secretaries was read. The Treasurer presented 
his annual report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1,205.54 on 
December 10, 1929. The auditing committee reported that the books of the. 
Treasurer were correct. 


JAN. 18, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 31 


The results of balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows: 
President: G. R. MANSFIELD; Vice-Presidents: O. EK. M®InzER and F, L. 
Hess; Treasurer: H. G. Fercuson; Secretaries: JAMES GILLULY and C. H. 
Dane; Members-at-Large of the Council: W. D. CotLtins, HERBERT INSLEY, 
H. D. Miser, G. B. Ricnharpson, and W. C. Mansrietp; Nominee as Vice- 
President of Washington Academy of Sciences representing the Geological So- 
ciety: S. R. Capps. 

A. A. Baktr, JAMES GILLULY, Secretaries. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Mr. and Mrs. W. H. Hoover and Mr. F. A. GreELry have returned in 
November from their three years’ occupation of the Smithsonian solar 
observing station on Mount Brukkaros, South West Africa. 


Professor A. 8. HitcHcock has returned from Africa, where he obtained 
large collections of grasses. 


The collections of the Division of Fishes, U.S. National Museum have been 
greatly enriched by the receipt of a large number of Chinese fishes from Mr. A. 
DEC. SowERBY and Dr. D. C. GRAHAM. 


Dr. E. P. Cuark, research chemist of the Interstate Cottonseed Crushers’ 
Association, and Dr. Hrersert L. J.!HALLER, associate in the department of 
chemistry of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, have accepted 
appointment in the insecticide division of the chemical and technological 
research unit of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. As organic chemists 
in the field of insecticides, they will investigate the structure of substances 
occurring naturally in certain tropical plants which are characterized by 
high toxicity to fish and which are believed to have promising possibilities as 
insecticides. When the structure of such compounds has been sufficiently 
investigated, attempts will be made to synthesize them or certain of their 
derivatives. The effect of all compounds isolated or synthesized will be physi- 
ologically tested upon fish, tadpoles, insects, and animals, as it is important 
to know their toxicity to man as well as their effect upon insects. 


Professor C. C. GHosH, Entomologist in the Agricultural College at Manda- 
lay, Burma, paid a brief visit to Washington in December during the course 
of a trip around the world. 


W. V. Kine, of the Bureau of Entomology, who has been for seven months 
investigating mosquitoes in the Philippines for the Rockefeller Foundation, 
has been studying the mosquito collections in the National Museum. 


» Professor Jos1AH BrinGes, of the School of Mines of the University of Mis- 
souri, is studying Ozarkian gastropods at the National Museum in connection 
with the work of the Missouri State Bureau of Geology and Mines and in 
cooperation with members of the U. 8. Geological Survey. 


Dr. C. E. Resser has been appointed Curator of Stratigraphic Paleontol- 
ogy in the National Museum. Dr. Resser has been connected with the 
Division of Paleontology since 1915. 


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CONTENTS : 
_ Onietnan Parers i pi 
2B Geophysics. —Hypotheses on the development of the earth. B. Gu E 


Botany.—A long lost Phlor. Epaar T. WHERRY.............2-...0000 


oN de . -- Proceepives ; pe i 
The Philosophical Sbeinby k's tein feck Manabe pug «Last ~ ote ee ge 
The-Geologioal Sgetetyy: jv. aiwets ngs gece vans hey oss nen eines eee 


ScIENTIFIC NoTEs AND NEW pat ses ne ik es Sea eanng fo wit pone emt ee 


This JourNau is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals to be found in pub 


~ ‘ Se 
. 


| OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 
- President: Aue’ HrouéKa, U.S. National Museum. = 
Corresponding Secretary: L. B. Tuckerman, Bureau of Stané 
Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic § 
‘Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


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FEBRUARY 4, 1930 No. 3 


‘ Bat A ae 
ae 
SS "G f 
» fy 
* oe 
Ma ‘he 
“ip of 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


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CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Von. 20 FEBRUARY 4, 1930 No. 3 


METEOROLOGY .—On the effect of vertical convection on lapse rates.? 
C.-G. Rosspy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (Com- 
municated by EpGarR W. WooLARD.) 


Because of the dynamic (adiabatic) heating or cooling which ac- 
companies vertical motion of air in the earth’s atmosphere, the occur- 
rence of convectional movements will in general result in a modification 
of the lapse rates that exist prior to such convection. The following 
treatment of this effect, which is believed to be new, is shorter and 
simpler, and in several respects more satisfactory, than that customa- 
rily given.? 

Let T be the absolute temperature, 6 the potential temperature, p 
the density, and d7'/dz the lapse rate within an infinitesimal stratum 
of dry air of thickness dz and cross section g. Suppose the stratum to 
undergo a vertical displacement, due to convectional movements; 
and let To, 0, go, po, (aT'/dz)o, dz, denote the values of the preceding 
quantities before the displacement, and Ji, 6, qi, pi, (dT /d2):, dé, 
those after the displacement; the potential temperature @ remains 
constant, the process being assumed adiabatic. Denote the lapse rate 
before displacement by —ao, that after displacement by —a,; and 
put y = Ag/c,, where A is the reciprocal of the mechanical equivalent 
of heat, c, is the specific heat at constant pressure and g is gravity. 
The potential temperature is given by 


REA Niles 
a) 


& 
1 Received November 19, 1929. 
2 F.M. Exner. Dynamische Meteorologie. 2te aufl., pp. 57-59, 85-86. 1925. 
W.J.Humpurers. Physics of the Air. 2ed., pp. 36-37. 1929. 


30 


34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 


in which p= is the barometric pressure, P is the standard pressure, and R 
is the characteristic gas constant. Differentiating this equation, we 
have 





dé ed ce acs 


dz T\d pe & 
Substituting dp = — pgdz gives 
pee ‘ea a af 
de Tld& “ee | 
whence 
dé 6 
ger Noted Mages 1 
(S), = x - (1) 
Ay 9 
le ae ete ae 2 
(S),-x- 4, Q) 


The constancy of mass requires that pogodZo = p1gid2:, or 


dans Deir ounlls 
dai Po Wo Po Yo Ts. 


Now 
EEE ERAN ek gees (3). 
dz1 dzy dz, dzp Po Yo T; 
Multiplying (1) by 2&2 gives, by (3), 
Pogol' 
dé 6 Pig To ( 
— = — — ae 4) 
7 oi i Sinica? Po Qo 1 
Eliminating dé/dz,; between (4) and (2), we have 
6 Pi Qi iE 6 
fy = gy) eee eee 
To y a0) Po Yo T; T; \y ; 
or 
Mme el Fees AY. (5) 
Po Yo 


In particular, if g. = qo, we get from (5) 





FEB. 4, 1930 REESIDE: CRETACEOUS FAUNAS 35 


Seite akin, 
pen ee eats + Wa — —, 
Gavin) pe UNd27.0 Ce Gs 
The explanation of subsidence inversions is apparent from these 
equations. 


The equation of continuity furnishes an adequate expression for the 
variation in dz. 


GEOLOGY .—The Cretaceous faunas in the section on Vermilion Creek, 
Moffat County, Colorado... JoHN B. Reestpe, Jr., U. 8. Geologi- 
cal Survey. 


Some years ago the writer assisted Messrs. J. D. Sears and W. H. 
Bradley in studying the unusually complete stratigraphic section along 
Vermilion Creek, in T. 10 N., R. 101 W., Moffat County, Colorado. 
Mr. Sears later published? a description of the lithologic units together 
with correlations based on areal studies, on stratigraphic and lithologic 
considerations, and on the fossils found. ‘The regional sequence of 
rocks from pre-Cambrian to Eocene is present. No detailed statement 
of the species of fossils observed in the section has been published, how- 
ever, and it is the chief purpose of this paper to record in some detail the 
collections from the Cretaceous beds. 

The nomenclature applied to the Cretaceous beds of Vermilion 
Creek is that derived from southwestern Colorado: Dakota (?) sand- 
stone, Mancos shale, and Mesaverde group, though only part of the last 
is exposed, a fault having carried the higher Cretaceous rocks far below 
the present surface. The locality is close enough to southern Wyoming, 
however, to show some of the stratigraphic subdivisions generally 
accepted in that region. As Mr. Sears has noted in the report cited 
above and in a later one,’ the Mancos shale contains at the base a 
thin member similar to the Aspen and Mowry shales in its peculiar 
lithology and its fossil content; resting upon the basal member a thin 
sandstone similar in lithology and fossil content to beds at some places 
included in the Frontier formation; and upon it a thick shale member 
corresponding to the Hilliard shale in position, though including in the 
upper part shaly marine equivalents of part of the coal-bearing rocks 
that farther northwest would not be included in the Hilliard shale. 


1 Received January 4, 1930. Published with the permission of the Director of the 
U.S. Geological Survey. 

2 J.D. Sears. Geology and oil and gas prospects of part of Moffat County, Colorado, 
and southern Sweetwater County, Wyoming. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 751: 278-281. 1924. 

3 J. D. Sears. Geology of the Baxter Basin gas field, Sweetwater County, Wyoming. 
U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 781: 15-22. 1926. 


36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 3 


In terms of the section east of the Rocky Mountains the Mancos 
of Vermilion Creek includes equivalents of the Graneros, Greenhorn, 
Carlile, Niobrara, and lower Pierre formations, the last containing repre- 
sentatives of the Eagle and Telegraph Creek beds. In terms of the 
European classification it is the Turonian, Coniacian, Santonian, and 
lower Campanian, possibly extending also into the upper Campanian. 
The part of the overlying Mesaverde group present is probably equiv- 
alent to the middle part of the Pierre or upper Campanian, though 
very few fossils are available as a basis for an opinion. In summary 
form the section of the Mancos may be interpreted as follows, the unit 
numbers referring to the detailed section given below: 


Equiwalent in 
Feet. 








European equivalent Plains Region 
Campanian: 
Upper(?): No. 1, fossiliferous.......... 100 ) 
No. 2 (part), fossiliferous.... 489 
Noi? Goatt); barren 2.04. 72 735 1324 
Lower 
Lower: No.3, fossiliferous.......... 140 ) Eagle part of 
No. 4 (part), fossiliferous.... 200 j fits ad eee Pierre 
No; 4: (@art);pbarren stone 816 1156 shale 
Santonian: | 
Upper: y No. 4 (part)> fossiliferous...22..<.- 886 Tel. Creek | 
| formation J 
Lower: No. 4 (part), fossiliferous.... 383 | 
No: S,fossiliferons. 32.46 bss. 75 
No4G tossiiterois 7)... as Ls 75 533 | Ni 
— iobrara 
Coniacian: No. 7, fossiliferous.......... 320 eo 
No.8 tossiliterous? 2). 430 
INO: 9: TOSsIILErOUS. <a... 106 856 j 
Turonian: 
Upper: 1 No. J0ctossiliferous. 4 +... 1 
Ne bareene. 0 eis paca 315 ; 
ING. 12a Damen. wee eget te 2 Carlile shale 
Noss; barren.e{.- 0.2 ae ee 4 (Frontier of 
No. 14, fossiliferous......... 55 authors) 
No. ‘15, barren), 408 25 
No: 16; fossiliferous:e4 “oe as 54 
No, 17, barren’ Sse 5.0 1 457 


FEB. 4, 1930 REESIDE: CRETACEOUS FAUNAS BT. 


Lower: No. 18, fossiliferous......... 34 
Now 19>) barren yori. ois uk 3 Greenhorn-Graneros 
No. 20, fossiliferous......... 118 155 | (Aspen of authors) 
Total 5367 


It is notable that the Turonian Prionotropis woolgari fauna, which 
should appear between that containing Metoicoceras whiter and that 
containing Prionocyclus wyomingensis, was not found in this section 
and that there is little room for it. It is possible that the sediments 
which represent the time of the woolgari fauna are very thin or lacking, 
though there is no particular physical evidence of a hiatus. The fauna 
in the lower part of the Niobrara equivalent (Coniacian), containing 
Inoceramus deformis, Baculites codyensis, Phlycticrioceras oregonense, 
etc., is much like that described by the writer from the lower part of the 
Cody shale of northern Wyoming.’ The very large shells of Inocera- 
mus (Haploscapha?), mostly represented by fragments coated with 
Ostrea congesta, are abundant in the Niobrara equivalent and extend 
above it into the Telegraph Creek equivalent (upper Santonian) only 
in a scarcer and depauperate development. In some parts of the sec- 
tion specimens more than four feet in maximum dimension were seen in 
cross section. In the upper part of the Mancos shale fossils are ex- 
tremely rare and extended search yielded only a few scattered species, 
except in the sandstone lenses at the top of the equivalent of the Eagle 
sandstone (lower Campanian), where a more extensive and significant 
fauna occurs. | 

The detailed section is as follows: 


CRETACEOUS BEDS ON VERMILION CREEK, Morrat County, CoLoRAbDo 
Feet. 


Mesaverde group (part): 
Williams Fork (?) formation: 
White and gray sandstone; gray and drab shale; coal beds; 
upper part cut off by faulting against Wasatch forma- 
DA Orel MAM par tank ocd cheek Marston hs ehbaetole dinate Se cos 500 
Iles (?) formation: 
Massive white sandstone predominant; a little gray shale and 
carbonaceous shale. At 75 feet above base occur 
Halymenites major Lesquereux, Inoceramus sp., Cardiwm 
sp., Mactra formosa Meek andHayden. About....... 1700 


*J. B. Rexsipz, Jr. Cephalopods from the lower part of the Cody shale of Oregon 
Basin, Wyoming. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 150: 1-19. 1927. 


38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 


Mancos shale: 

1. Gray shale, increasingly sandy toward top................. 100 

2. Gray to slate-colored shale; at top of unit and 490 feet lower 
are lines of rusty-brown fine-grained calcareous sandstone 
concretions several feet in diameter, containing fossils of 
Montana age. In the upper horizon were noted Pteria 
nebrascana Evans and Shumard, Baculites sp., Lunatia sp.; 
in the lower, Inoceramus barabint Morton................ 1224 

3. Rusty-brown medium-grained sandstone in short lenses at four 
horizons, separated by gray shale; most prominent lens, 6 
feet thick, at base; next, 2 feet Ah 25 feet higher; third, 1 
foot thick, 88 feet above base; fourth, 8 feet thick, at top. 
In the highest lens occur Inoceramus sagensis Owen, Ostrea 
sp., Lucina n. sp., Corbula n. sp., Teredo sp., Volutoderma 
n. sp., Anisomyon aff. A. subovatus Meek and Hayden, 
Hamites novimexicanus Reeside, Baculites ovatus Say, B. 
asper Morton, Scaphites hippocrepis DeKay, S. aquilaensis 
Reeside, S. stantonz Reeside; in the next to lowest, Inocera- 
mus sagensis Owen and Haresiceras natronense Reeside; in 
the lowest, Solemya bilix White, Inoceramus sp., Ostrea cf. 
O. congesta Conrad, Lucina n. sp., Corbula n. sp., Ichthyo- 
dectes? ‘SP. 0:2 . «0% fara «ph BAe Cees tot eee 140 

4. Gray to slate-colored shale, irregular ian a line of gray 
calcareous septarian concretions at base; thin beds of soft, 
fine-grained gray sandstone at 647, 657, 1213, 1233, and 
1269 feet above base of unit. At 2085 feet above base occur 
Lucinan.sp., Corbulan. sp., Baculites sp., Hypsodon? radiatu- 
lus Cockerell; at 1269 feet, Inoceramus sp., Hypsodon? 
radiatulus Cockerell; at 657 feet, Desmoscaphites basslerz 
Reeside and Ichthyodectes? sp.; at 150 feet, Pterza gastrodes 
Meek, Inoceramus sp., Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites sp., 
Scaphites vermiformis Meek and Hayden; at 45 feet, Baculites 
codyensis Reeside; at 35 feet, Inoceramus aff. I. stantoni 
Sokolow; at 25 feet, Lingula aff. L. nitida Meek and Hayden, 
Veniella mortont Meek and Hayden, Lucina subundata Hall 
and Meek, Fusus? sp., Baculites codyensis Reeside, Scaphites 
ventricosus Meek and Hayden. In the lowest 400 feet 
fragments of a large, thick-shelled species of Inoceramus 
(Haploscapha?), coated with Ostrea congesta Conrad, are 
abundant; in the next overlying 800 feet they still occur but 
are rather rare and of smaller size..............0.+.-..-.. 2285 


FEB. 4, 1930 REESIDE: CRETACEOUS FAUNAS 39 


5. Dark slate-colored shale, including five or six bands of fine- 
grained gray sandstone that weather to low ridges. At 25 
feet above base occur Lucina sp., Baculites sp.; at 15 feet, 
Ostrea congesta Conrad and Lucina subundata Hall and 
Meek. Jnoceramus (Haploscapha?) sp. and Ostrea congesta 
SLeeOUnGaMitNLOUueMOUt .oee. Sls.) kee sy a SS TY. E 

6. Light bluish-gray shale, laminated, breaking into flat pieces 
when fresh; a line of gray calcareous septarian concretions 
as much as 1 foot in diameter at base. At 20 feet above base 
occur Lingula aff. L. nitida Meek and Hayden, Nucula sp., 
Yoldia aff. Y. scitula Meek and Hayden, Arca n. sp., Inocera- 
mus sp., Ostrea congesta Conrad, Lucina subundata Hall and 
Meek, Anchura? sp., Anisomyon n. sp., Fusus n. sp., Baculites 
asper Morton; at base, Inoceramus umbonatus Meek and 
Hayden, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites asper Morton, 
Ichthyodectes? sp. Inoceramus (Haploscapha?) and Ostrea 
congesta are abundant throughout... ......0 2022 .00505.. 

7. Dark slate-colored shale with irregular bedding; zones of light- 
gray laminated shale; many thin layers of shaly sandstone 
that weather into papery flakes; lines of gray calcareous 
septarian concretions as much as 1 foot in diameter at 75 and 
90 feet above base of unit; reddish sandy streaks with some 
reddish concretions at 125 and 190 feet above base. At 215 
feet occur Inoceramus sp., Ostrea congesta Conrad, Anisomyon 
n.sp., Baculztes codyensis Reeside; at 190 feet, Inoceramus aff. 
I. stantont Sokolow; at 180 feet, Inoceramus aff. I. stanton 
Sokolow, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Lucina sp., Baculites 
codyensis Reeside, Helicoceras aff. H. corrugatum Stanton, 
Echidnocephalus? sp., Leucichthyops vagans Cockerell (?); at 
130 feet, Inoceramus aff. I. stantoni Sokolow, I. undulatopli- 
catus Roemer, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites codyensis 
Reeside; at 125 feet, Inoceramus sp., Ostrea congesta Conrad, 
Sauvagesia cf. S. austinensis (Roemer), Isurus? sp.; at 75 feet, 
Inoceramus aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Baculites sp., Scaphites 
vermiformis Meek and Hayden; at 55 feet, Inoceramus aff. 
I. stantont Sokolow, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Vanikoro? sp., 
Baculites asper Morton, Hypsodon? sp.; at base, Inoceramus 
aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Baculites sp. Inoceramus (Haplo- 
scapha?) sp. and Ostrea conaesta are abundant throughout.... 320 

8. Light bluish-gray shale, laminated, breaking into flat pieces 
when fresh; a line of gray calcareous septarian concretions at 
330 feet above base of unit. In the concretions occur Inocera- 


~] 
Ot 


~I 
Ou 


40 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 3 


mus aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Lucina 
subundata Hall and Meek, Phlycticrioceras oregonense Ree- 
side, Scaphites sp.; at 325 feet, Inoceramus deformis Meek, 
Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites asper Morton; at 295 feet, 
Inoceramus deformis Meek, I. aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Pteria 
gastrodes Meek, Baculites sp., Phlycticrioceras oregonense 
Reeside, Helicoceras cf. H. corrugatum Stanton; at 285 feet, 
Cyphosoma n. sp., Solemya n. sp., Inoceramus deformis Meek, 
Inoceramus aff. I. stantona Sokolow with original color 
pattern preserved, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Anisomyon? 
n. sp., Baculites asper Morton, Phlycticrioceras oregonense 
Reeside, Scaphites ventricosus Meek and Hayden; at 240 feet, 
Inoceramus deformis Meek, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites 
sp., Scaphites sp.; at 220 feet, Inoceramus deformis Meek, 
Inoceramus aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Ostrea congesta Conrad, 
Baculites asper Morton. Inoceramus (Haploscapha?) sp. and 
Ostrea congesta are abundant throughout................... 


9. Dark slate-colored shale with irregular bedding. Near top of 


10. 


i ks 
12. 
13. 


14. 


15. 


unit occur Nodosaria n. sp., Inoceramus aff. I. stantont Soko- 
low, Lucinasp., Mactra emmonsi Meek, Lunatia? sp., Anchura 
n. sp., Cerithium? n. sp., Baculites ef. B. gracilis Shumard, 
Helicoceras aff. H. corrugatum Stanton, Placenticeras cf. P. 
pseudoplacenta Hyatt. Inoceramus (Haploscapha?) sp. and 
Ostrea congesta Conrad are fairly abundant throughout... .. 
Large, dark reddish-brown sandstone concretions containing 
Inoceramus fragilis Hall and Meek, Ostrea sp., Scaphites 
warrent Meek and Hayden, Prionocyclus sp., Corax sp....... 
Dark slate-colored shale with irregular bedding............ 
White sandstone, stained somewhat brown on surface; makes 
2 G@ip Slope... .. 2 bios cee oe Re 
Gray and brown carbonaceous shale; lens of coal as much as 
18 inches»thick:: . 2: .:234.2d66n0e et hee ee 
Massive fine to medium grained sandstone; upper part white, 
lower part buff; slightly cross-bedded; a little gray shale 
present. Near top of unit occur Lingula cf. L. nitida Meek 
and Hayden, Solemya? obscura Stanton(?), Inoceramus sp., 
Mactra sp., Corbula kanabensis Stanton, Lunatza aff. L. 
concinna Hall and Meek, Prionocyclus sp., Petalolepis? fibril- 
lates Gorkerell (?).....'.... ASE Se eee 
Guay sandy shale»... Sates. Se ee ee 


430 


106 


315 


50 
25 


FEB. 4, 1930 BERRY: A NEW HYPURAL FAN 4} 


16. Gray fine-grained sandstone in layers 1 to 6 inches thick, and 
eray sandy shale, interbedded. At middle of unit occur 
Inoceramus fragilis Hall and Meek, Ostrea sp., Scaphites sp., 


Prionocyclus wyomingensis Meek; at base, Ptychodus sp...... 54 
ig tammy shale with cone-in-cone structure. .....0. 6) 04.0.5 0. < 1 
18. Hard platy shale; bluish-white to cream-colored on weathered 

surface, dark brown onfresh surface. Fishscalesabundant. . 34 
PERNT OMG ee se tv veer eh tst aes eee eeaIO fat enn Wino o lt bits 3 


20. Hard platy shale; bluish-white to cream-colored on weathered 
surface, dark brown on fresh surface. Fish scales abundant 
and at 75 feet above base of unit occur Inoceramus labiatus 
Schlotheim, Metoicoceras whiter Hyatt, Leucichthyops vagans 
Wocleenelll gery Ne Me te ea SE Ah RG Roi Voom at 118 


Total thickness.. 5367 


= 


Dakota(?) sandstone: 


Gray coarse-grained sandstone; gritty and conglomeratic bands.. 50 
Peavacwalesand: thimrsamadstONes. eu 0 yh. Stay Gh ae bt ese a 15 
White medium-grained sugary sandstone, friable............... 22, 
MB eet ast ia cea hoe atlas faye ened. oe slats os MEU wean alonethtiare 24 
ihemt-eray- shale, ereenish) tinG!. (0s...) ok SY wee oe ee ees 16 
White coarse-grained sugary sandstone, friable; contains many 

CLEKGLS Cape Un Stags RMS rs ou eink A ie Ec LA 3 
White and light-gray conglomeratic sandstone; many zones of 

small pebbles; mostly. of black chert. ......4...45..0.0.. 0: 27 


Total thickness. . 157 


Morrison formation. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—A new hypural fan from the Miocene of Mary- 
land.1 WituaARD Brrry, Ohio State University (Communicated 
by Joun B. Rexsipe, JR.) 


While collecting along the Calvert Cliffs of Maryland this past 
summer the writer found many fragments of fossil bone. Those worth 
preserving were turned over to the National Museum at Washington. 
However, in a chunk of material collected to show the lithology of 
the formation, a rather well preserved hypural fan was later found 
that seems worthy of record. ‘The material was from the talus at the 
base of the cliffs south of Camp Roosevelt, and is probably from the 
Calvert formation of the Miocene. 

The specimen may be described as follows: 


1 Received December 6, 1929. 


42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 


Xiphias ? drydeni W. Berry, n.sp. 


Terminal vertebral centrum moderately concave in front and circular in 
cross section, its neural and haemal spines fused into a solid fan-shaped body; 
the anterior haemal spine less completely fused with the next following than 
are the rest, and separated from it near the point of attachment to the cen- 
trum by a perforation 4 mm. in diameter passing completely through the 
fan and connecting with a perforation of equal diameter on the dorsal side 
of the anterior haemal spine at the point of attachment to the centrum. 
There is also a smaller perforation extending posteriorly through the fan. 
There were apparently lateral processes which have been broken off but the 
bases are still present on either side of the centrum. 





Figures 1-2.—Dorsal and side views, natural size, of the hypural fan of Xiphias?” 
drydeni W. Berry, n. sp. 


This species cannot be referred to Xiphias? radiata, described from the 
Aquia Formation (Eocene) by Clark,? because of the difference in concavity 
of the front of the centrum and because of the perforation opening above the 
anterior haemal spine. The extreme height of the fan is 5.6 em. and the 
diameter of the centrum is 1.5 em., the ratio of the two differing greatly from 
those fans described from the Eocene. This species differs also from those 
found in the Tertiary of South Carolina in having a circular cross section of 
the centrum. It is named after Mr. A. L. Dryden, who was with me during 
the collecting season when it was found. 

Occurrence.—Calvert formation (?), Miocene, Calvert Cliffs, Maryland. 

The type is in the Geological Museum of The Ohio State University, Ac- 
cession number 17109. : 


7W. B. CuarKx. Eocene deposits of Maryland. Md. Geol. Survey Rept., p. 112. 
1901. 


FEB. 1 1930 WHERRY: PLANTS OF SHALE-BARRENS 43 
BOTANY.— Plants of the Appalachian shale-barrens.: Epcar T. 
Wuerry, Washington, D.C. 


The term shale-barren was appropriately applied by Steele? to a 
unique type of plant habitat occurring locally in the central Appala- 
chians, within the area delimited by two heavy lines on the accom- 
panying map, figure 1. ‘These barrens are developed on shale-slopes,— 
places where hard shaly rocks of the Romney (middle Devonian) and 
Jennings (early upper Devonian) formations outcrop on steep hillsides, 
the surface being strewn with frost-broken fragments. They are 
typically occupied by a sparse, scrubby growth of pine, oak, mountain- 
laurel, and other woody plants, with herbaceous ones scattered be- 
tween, grading into normal woodland wherever conditions permit the 
accumulation of sufficient soil. A number of endemic species and 





Fira. 1. Location of the Shale-barren Region 


varieties have been observed to characterize this shale-barren plant- 

association, and others no doubt remain to be discovered. As no 

annotated list of these has ever been published, one is here presented 

in the hope of encouraging further investigation of the region. 

The shale-barrens thus far discovered are located as follows: 

Maryland, at intervals along the National Highway, U. 8. route No. 
40, between Cumberland and Indian Springs (20 miles west of 
Hagerstown). 

Northern West Virginia; similarly along route No. 50 from south of 
Keyser to Gore, west of Winchester, Virginia. 


1 Received January 4, 1930. 
2 Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 18: 359. 1911. 


44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 


Southeastern West Virginia, on various hills in the vicinity of White 
Sulphur Springs, especially the western slope of Kates Mountain, 
which is reached by a trail from the railroad station; Slaty Moun- 
tain, north of Sweet Springs. 

West-central Virginia, along state route No. 39 east of Monterey; on 
various hills in the neighborhood of Hot Springs; along the Chesa- 
peake and Ohio railroad near Millboro, Goshen, and Augusta 
Springs, and its branch line north of Covington; and near U. 8. 
route 60 west of Covington. 

In figure 1 the above listed places are indicated by dots, which 
apparently fall into two separate groups, although the gap between 
these merely reflects the relative inaccessibility and consequent lack 
of exploration of the intervening territory. Further northeast as well 
as further southwest the shale-slopes rapidly diminish in size and bar- 
renness, owing to changes in physical and chemical character exhibited 
by these Devonian strata along their strike. Certain formations of 
other geologic ages, such as the Martinsburg (upper Ordovician) oc- 
casionally yield superficially similar shale-slopes, but no typical bar- 
rens. 

The peculiarities of the shale-slopes which lead-to their being 
occupied by endemic plants appear to be the sparsity of soil, the way 
in which the loose rock-flakes creep down the slopes under the influence 
of the weather, and the limited amount of available moisture and 
nutrient elements. The rock is made up largely of quartz and clay 
minerals, and exhibits a neutral reaction. The accumulation of humus 
in the heaps of loose fragments results in the development of con- 
siderable acidity, little mineral matter capable of neutralizing the 
organic acids formed being present. ‘The litter is evidently too porous 
to permit the accumulation of much available nitrogen, and tests have 
failed to show the presence of nitrates or ammonia in appreciable 
amount. 

The more notable plants of these habitats are here listed in the 
standard order followed in manuals of botany, notes being given 
as to the distribution, relationships, history, etc., of the endemic ones. 


NoTABLE PLANTS OF THE SHALE-BARRENS. 
Cheilanthes.—The Hairy Lipfern, C. lanosa (Michx.) Watt, grows on 
various kinds of rock throughout the southeastern uplands, and invades 
the barrens wherever cliffs are well-developed. The only peculiarity 
it shows here is a stunted aspect, owing to the general sterility. 


FEB. 4, 1930 WHERRY: PLANTS OF SHALE-BARRENS 45 


Woodsia Abundant evidence has been assembled by Fernald? indi- 
cating that during pre-Glacial times Rocky Mountain plants migrated 
eastward across northern North America, and some of these plants 
found their way down the Allegheny mountain system. One of 
the latter was the Rocky Mountain Cliff-fern, W. scopulina D.C. 
Eaton, which as recently recorded,‘ is now known from six southeastern 
stations. Two of these, near Covington and Sweet Springs, are on 
the cliffs of typical Devonian shale-slopes, the remainder being on more 
or less similar rocks of other geologic ages. The fronds exhibit features 
differing to some extent from those of the Rocky Mountain occur- 
rences, and Fernald has suggested that the differences may be of speci- 
fic rank, although in view of the variability of the species, it seems more 
probable that this Allegheny Cliff-fern should be classed only as a 
variety. 

Selaginella—The widespread Rock Spikemoss, S. rupestris (L.) 
Spring, varies in aspect somewhat with the nature of the substratum. 
On the shale-barrens, which it occasionally enters, it is often relatively 
slender and grayish in color, but the differences are not believed to be of 
taxonomic importance. 

Allium.—Nodding Onions, grouped under the general head of A. 
cernuum Roth, occur nearly throughout the United States, falling into 
several geographic races, not as yet fully worked out. One of these, 
A. oxyphilum Wherry, is endemic in the shale-barren region, usually 
occurring on the more heavily wooded portions of the shale-slopes, 
though sometimes remote from them. Perhaps it should be classed as 
only a variety, but this can not be decided until someone makes a 
field study of the group as a whole. 

Eriogonum.—This typical Rocky Mountain genus has very few rep- 
resentatives in the east, but one of the latter, H. allenit Wats., is a highly 
characteristic member of the shale-barren flora. The Yellow-buck- 
wheat, as it is locally called, prefers the barest and most sterile situa- 
tions, its long tough roots penetrating crevices in the shale rocks and 
holding the clumps in place in spite of the downward creep of the sur- 
face fragments. Its ancestors presumably crossed the continent and 
came down the Alleghenies during pre-Glacial times, but subsequent 
climatic changes destroyed all traces of them, leaving behind this 
single endemic species. 


3 Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 15: 239. 1925. 
* Amer. Fern. Journ. 19: 101. 1929. 


46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 3 


Polygonum.—One of the dry-soil Knotweeds, apparently P. tenue 
Michx., is abundant in the more open parts of the barrens. 

Anychia.—Several members of this genus occur on sterile gravelly 
soils in many parts of the eastern United States, and naturally invade 
the shale-barrens. The one which becomes most conspicuous in these 
habitats, though without exhibiting any consequent morphologic 
changes, is A. divaricata Raf. This has often been regarded as identi- 
cal with A. polygonoides Raf., but, as pointed out by Steele,® is un- 
doubtedly distinct. 

Paronychia.—Only one Nailwort has been observed on shale-slopes, 
the Texan species, P. dichotoma (L.) Nutt., which is known in the 
eastern states in few localities. 

Silene-—The Pink Catchfly, S. pennsylvanica Michx. or S. carolin- 
tana Walt., growing as it does in gravelly soil in so many places, 
could not fail to invade the shale-barrens. So far as known no signifi- 
cant change results, although the plants are often rather stunted in 
aspect. One of the many forms of Fire Catchfly, S. virginica L. is also 
occasional in these habitats; it does not seem to be an endemic type, 
although the variations of this species remain to be interpreted. 

Anemone.—On the more heavily wooded shale-slopes one or more 
members of the section Anemonanthea of this genus occur, but their 
identity has not been worked out. Perhaps only forms of A. lanci- 
folia Pursh (A. trifolia of current manuals) are represented, although 
it seems quite probable that the imperfectly known A. minima DC. is 
a member of the same flora, and has been largely overlooked owing to 
the fact that little collecting has been done in these regions in early 
Spring. 

Clematis —Members of the section Viorna of this genus are present 
on several shale-barrens, but their relationships are obscure. In 1814 
Pursh had described C. ovata from the mountains of South Carolina, 
and Britton® concluded this to be identical with the plant of the Kates 
Mountain shales, although the published description of the type speci- 
men indicates that it is too incomplete to justify considering this as 
established. The Clematis of the Millboro barren was described by 
Steele in 1911 as C. viticaulis, and matters are still further complicated 
by the occurrence on others of C. sericea Michx., which is usually sup- 
posed but not known to be the same as C. ochroleuca Ait. of Atlantic 
lowland regions. Before this tangle can be unravelled it will be neces- 


6 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 18: 363. 1911. 
6 Mem. Torr. Bot. Club 2: 28. 1890. 


FEB. 4, 1930 WHERRY: PLANTS OF SHALE-BARRENS 47 


sary to study all of these plants in fresh condition, make sure as to the 
identity of Michaux’s and Pursh’s species by exploration of the type 
localities, and find out the extent of variability within the individual 
colonies. This would make an interesting study for someone who has 
the opportunity to carry on the necessary field work. 

Arabis.—An endemic derivative of the widespread Smooth Rock- 
eress, A. laevigata (Muhl.) Poir., grows on the shale-barrens, being re- 
markable in blooming in Summer instead of Spring. It has been 
named A. serotina by Steele, but its relationships to other variants of 
the species remain to be worked out. 

Draba.—The little Rock-twist, D. ramosissuma Desv., grows on 
cliffs of many kinds of rock in the southeastern uplands, and enters the 
shale-barrens on the more sheltered ees, without exhibiting any 
resulting morphologic effects. 

Sedum.—Three of the Stonecrops of the Allegheny region occur to 
some extent on shale slopes: American Live-for-ever, S. telephiordes 
Michx.; Triplet Stonecrop, S. ternatum Michx.; and Mountain Stone- 
crop, S. nevir Gray, the last being most characteristic of these habitats. 
None of them show, however, any recognizable changes on passing 
from one type of rock to another, which they do freely. 

Trifolium.—The most chacteristic endemic of the shale-barrens is the 
Longleaf Clover, T. wrginicum Small. This is a derivative of the 
Buffalo Clover, 7’. reflecum L., which grows on the western slopes of the 
Alleghenies and further west, and was reduced to a variety, 7. reflecum 
virginicum, by McDermott.? The latter author stated it to be ‘“‘abun- 
dant throughout the Appalachian mountains’’, although for many 
years but one locality was represented in herbaria. Up to early in 
1929, eight stations for it had been definitely made known,* another 
since reported in Mineral County, West Virginia, bringing the total 
to nine. It favors the barest and most sterile situations, withstanding 
the instability of the surface fragments by sending long tough roots into 
crevices in the more solid rock below. 

A stragalus.—A small member of this genus is well developed on a 
few of the shale-barrens; it has also been found on limestone in Fred- 
erick County, Virginia, by Hunnewell.? This agrees fairly well with 
A. distortus T. & G., but may be varietally distinct from the species 
as developed in the central United States—Texas to Iowa and east- 
ward, but not coming within 400 miles of the shale-slope region. 

’ North American Species Trifolium, p. 273. 1908. 


® Torreya 29: 105. 1929. 
®°Rhodora 31: 256. 1929. 


48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 


Viola—The Birdsfoot Violet, V. pedata L., is a typical occupant of 
sterile gravelly soils in many parts of the eastern states, and would 
naturally be expected to invade the shale-barrens. When it does, its 
leaves exhibit a distinctive type of cutting, but whether it also differs in 
other characters has not been ascertained. 

Oenothera.—Both an unusually small and an unusually large flowered 
representative of the section Onagra of this genus grow on shale-slopes. 
The former was suggested by Steele!® to be O. parviflora L., but has not 
been sufficiently studied. The latter is, however, an endemic species, 
O. argillicola Mackenzie. When this remarkable Evening-primrose is 
in bloom in late Summer, its habitats seem rather inappropriately 
classified as barrens, for it makes a magnificent floral display. It 
is, however, rather closely restricted to sterile situations, having, for 
a biennial, an unusually extensive root system. An interesting out- 
lying occurrence of it has been noted, along the Juniata River opposite 
Losh Run station, in Perry County, Pennsylvania (marked by a circle 
on the map, Fig. 1); this has unfortunately been destroyed by the con- 
struction of U. 8. Highway No. 22. The rock there is a shale of the 
same geological age as that underlying the more southern shale-barrens, 
but apparently too rich in lime and other plant-food elements, or too 
readily weathered into soil, to favor the growth of other endemics. 

Pseudotaenidia.—P. montana Mackenzie, or, as it may be called, the 
Mountain-pimpernel, represents not only an endemic species but also 
an endemic genus, no near relatives being known anywhere. Few 
localities of it appear to be on record, but it is not uncommon in woods 
on shale-slopes. The occurrence reported near Luray, Virginia, was 
no doubt on the shale there, which though resembling the Devonian 
rock in appearance, is actually of another geologic age, and differs so 
much in composition as to yield no typical barrens. 

Asclepias.—Several common milkweeds of sterile gravelly soils enter 
the shale-barrens, including A. quadrifolia Jacq., A. verticillata L., 
and A. tubersoa LL. The last named often has abnormally pale corolla- 
color in such habitats, but no other differences have been recognized. 

Convolvulus.—The widespread Dwarf Convolvulus, C. spithamaeus 
L., exhibits considerable geographic variation, the details of which re- 
main to be worked out. One of its derivatives, which may be termed 
the Velvet Convolvulus because of the strikingly velvety leaves, ap- 
pears to be particularly well adapted to shale-barren habitats, where 
it locally forms vast patches of more or less regularly spaced stalks, 


10 Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 13: 366. 1911. 


FEB. 4, 1930 WHERRY: PLANTS OF SHALE-BARRENS 49 


to the exclusion of most other vegetation. As recently pointed out," 
this is apparently C. stans Michx., the type locality of which was in 
Canada, near Lake Champlain. It is noteworthy that shale rocks, 
similar in aspect to those of the region under discussion, occur in this 
vicinity, although for that matter the plant is not entirely restricted 
to such rocks, for specimens have been seen in herbaria from Ducktown, 
Tennessee, and Atlanta, Georgia, where very different formations are 
represented. Further field study of this group is much to be desired. 

Phlox.—Festoons of Moss-Phlox drape the ledges on many of the 
shale-slopes, the white or pale lavender flowers with which they are 
covered in Spring giving them a different aspect from the related 
material of other habitats, and the name P. brittonit Small has been 
applied. A detailed study” has shown, however, that in view of the 
marked variability of this group of Phloxes, the differences can not be 
regarded as having more than varietal significance, leading to the com- 
bination P. subulata brittona. Besides growing on shale, this plant 
extends down the Potomac valley nearly to Washington, D. C., on 
other types of rock. 

A highly distinctive species, termed the Sword-leaf Phlox from the 
shape of its evergreen basal leaves, and recently named P. buckleyi 
Wherry, is included in this enumeration because, although not growing 
on barrens, it seems to thrive best in woods near the bases of shale- 
slopes. It is an endemic relative of the more widespread Mountain 
Phlox, P. ovata L., which enters the same habitats to some extent 
without, however, exhibiting any recognizable morphologic changes. 

Pensiemon.—The Mountain Penstemon, P. canescens Britton, 
thrives on sterile gravelly slopes throughout the southeastern uplands, 
and naturally invades the shale-barrens. When it does so, the corolla 
color seems to be paler than usual, although no other distinctive 
features are known to have developed. 

Houstonia.—Several species of Summer-bluets grow in the shale-slope 
region, and H. tenuzfolia Nutt. becomes particularly abundant in these 
habitats, showing no differences from occurrences on other formations. 

Campanula.—The lovely little Allegheny Bluebell, C. divaricata or 
C. flexuosa Michx., thrives on various types of rocks in the Appala- 
chians, including the shales here under discussion. Its characters 
remain, however, essentially uniform throughout. 


11 'Torreya 29: 106. 1929. 
12 Bartonia 11: 27. 1929. 


50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 3 


Liatris—Gayfeathers are a striking feature of several of the shale- 
barrens, but their nomenclature needs further consideration. Perhaps 
the commonest is a derivative of L. spicata (L.) Willd., which corre- 
sponds more or less to L. spicata montana Gray. 

Solidago.—One of the several goldenrods of these habitats, an 
apparent relative of S. arguta Ait., has been described as a distinct 
species, S. harrisii Steele. Others also deserve critical study. 

Aster—The widespread A. lowrieanus is represented on the barrens 
by a plant with creeping rootstocks which adapt it to growth in the 
heaps of loose shale, and it has received the appropriate name of A. 
schistosus Steele. Other species of this genus also occur in these habi- 
tats, but show no recognizable changes there. The latter statement 
apparently applies as well to the Antennarias, although they have not 
been investigated closely. 7 

Silphium.—Rosinweeds are mostly native to the prairies of the 
central United States, but a few of them push eastward into the 
Alleghenies. One of these, S. reniforme Raf., is a striking member of 
the shale-barren flora, although it grows to some extent on other forma- 
tions as well. 

Helianthus.—Several Sunflowers occur on or near shale-barrens, 
but the only one recognized as showing distinctive characters is a 
rough-leaved representative of a widespread species, which has been 
named H. laevigatus reindutus Steele. 

Senecio.—Three or four Groundsels are known in the shale-slope 
region, one of them being especially noteworthy. The Everlasting- 
Groundsel, S. antennariifolius Britton, is a highly characteristic occu- 
pant of the barer situations, often spreading into large patches, 
and having been but rarely observed in any other habitats. This 
endemic, like several others, is most nearly related to a Rocky Moun- 
tain species, and in the key in Gray’s Manual, ed. 7, the range is 
actually the only feature used to distinguish it from S. canus Hook. 
GS. purshianus Nutt.) of that region. 

In conclusion, two tabular arrangements of the species above dis- 
cussed may be given to bring out certain interesting points about them: 
(1) a geographic list, showing the inferred sources of the plants and the 
type of endemism they represent; and (2) a chronologic list of the arti- 
cles in which the more pronounced endemics have been described, 
showing how this interesting flora has been critcally studied only at 
more or less long intervals. 


FEB. 4, 1930 WHERRY: PLANTS OF SHALE-BARRENS ol 


TABLE 1. GEOGRAPHIC LIST OF PLANTS OF THE SHALE-BARRENS!3 





Without near relatives: Pseudotaenidia montana 


Derived from Rocky Mountain species: Woodsia scopulina var.? 
Eriogonum alleni 
Senecio antennariifolius 


Derived from prairie species: Trifolium reflecum virginicum 
Astragalus distortus var.? 
Silphium rem forme 


Derived from surrounding species: Allium oxyphilum (from A. cernuum) 
Arabis serotina (from A. laevigata) 
Anemone spp. 

Clematis spp. 

Viola pedata var.? 

Oenothera argillicola (from O. biennis) 
Convolvulus stans (from C. spithamaeus) 
Phlox subulata brittonii 

Phlox buckley (from P. ovata) 

Inatris spicata montana? 

Solidago harrisit (from S. arguta) 

Aster schistosus (from A. lowrieanus) 
Helianthus laevigatus reindutus 


Entering without essential change: Cheilanthes lanosa 
Selaginella rupestris 
Polygonum tenue 
Anychia divaricata et al. 
Paronychia dichotoma 
Silene pennsylvanica et al. 
Draba ramosissima 
Sedum nevii et al. 
Oenothera parviflora? 
Asclepias tuberosa et al. 
Phlox ovata 
Penstemon canescens 
Houstonia tenuifolia et al. 
Campanula flexuosa 
Aster spp. 

Antennaria spp. 
Helianthus spp. 
Senecio spp. 


13This is by no means a complete list of the plants which grow on the barrens, but 
does include most of the more striking or noteworthy ones thus far observed. Fur- 
ther study will no doubt result in adding to the list, as well as in shifting of some 
species from the category ‘‘entering without essential change’’ to other classes. 


52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 


TABLE 2. CHRONOLOGICAL List OF SHALE-BARREN ENDEMICS OR NEAR-ENDEMICS 


1803. Muicuaux, Flora Boreali-Americana 1: 136. Convolvulus stans. 
319. Clematis sericea. 
1814. Pursu, Flora America Septentrionalis 2: 736. Clematis ovata. 
1841. RarinesqueE, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. n.s.7: 342. Silphium reniforme. 
1889. Watson, in Gray’s Manual, ed. 6, p. 734. Hriogonum allent. 
1894. Sma, Mem. Torr. Bot. Club 4: 112. Trifolium virginicum. 
1898. Brirron, in Britton & Brown Illustr. Flora 3: 478. Senecio antennariifolius. 
1900. Smauu, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 27: 279. Phlox brittonit. 
1903. MackKrENzIk, Torreya 3: 159. Pseudotaenidia montana. 
1904. Mackernziz, Torreya 4: 56. Oe¢enothera argillicola. 
1911. Sverre, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 13: 364. Clematis viticaulis. 
365. Arabis serotina. 
369. Solidago harrisit. 
373. Aster schistosus. 
374. Helianthus laevigatus reindutus. 
1925. Wuerry, THs JoURNAL 15: 370. Allium oxyphilum. 
1929. Wuerky, THIS JOURNAL 20: 25. Phlox buckleyr. 





SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


The largest single monetary award in America for scientific accomplish- 
ment has been created by Popular Science Monthly, which, beginning this 
autumn, will confer an annual prize of $10,000, accompanied by a gold medal, 
upon the American citizen who has been responsible, during the preceding 
year, for the achievement in science of greatest potential value to the world. 

The award will be bestowed under the auspices of the Popular Science 
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Prof. Coututns P. Briss, associate dean, New York University, is director. 
The Institute has enlisted the services of twenty-four leaders in American 
science to serve as a Committee of Award, whose task it will be to select the 
prize-winning effort. The prize will be conferred for the first time in Septem- 
ber, 1930, and the initial period of scientific accomplishment to be con- 
sidered by the Committee of Award will be the twelve months ending June 
30,1930. All scientific workers, professional and amateur, academic and 
commercial, are eligible. 

The Committee of Award consists of: Dr. CHartes G. AsBsBort, Prof. 
Couuins P. Buiiss, Dr. Samurt A. Brown, Dr. Gzorcre K. Bureszss, Dr. 
Witu1amM W. CampBELu, Dr. Harvey N. Davis, Dr. Artuur L. Day, Dr. E. 
EK. Free, Travis Hoxs, Dr. Frank B. Jewett, Dr. VERNON KELLOGG, 
Cuarues F. Kerrertne, Dr. ArtHur D. Litriz, Dr. Joun C. Murriam, 
Dr. Ropert A. Mrurrkan, Dr. HENRY FarrFieLp OsBorn, Dr. ELMER A, 
SpeRRY, Dr. Samuret W. Stratton, Dr. Etisu THomson, Dr. Epwarp R. 
WEIDLEIN, Henry HerMAN WEsTINGHOUSE, Dr. ALBERT E. Wuite, Dr. 
Wiis R. Wuitney, and ORVILLE WRIGHT. 

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. ra 
CONTENTS 
ORIGINAL PAPERS 
Meteorology.—On the effect of vertical convection on lapse rates. x c 
Geology.—The Cretaceous faunas in the section on Vermilion C 
County, Colorado. Joun B. Ruusrpn, JR........../......0.0008 
Paleontology.—A new hypural fan from the Miocene of Maryland. be 
Botany.—Plants of the Appalachian shale-barrens. 
ScrentiFic NOTES AND Ms ee 
This Jovawax. is indexed in the International Indes tol Periodieala ee . 
curd Secretary: i B. ee uM IAN, B 
Recording Secretary: Cuartes THom, Bureau of C 
Treasurer: Henry G. a Coast and Geodetie 
1 
we ; 








VoL. 20 Frsruary 19, 1930 No. 4 


ees 


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a Re 


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\ ft, a te 
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My c® Gs 


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GEODESY.—The scientific and practical value of triangulation. 
Wiuu1am Bowin, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


Triangulation, as is well known, is a method of surveying by means 
of which the distances and directions between widely separated points 
on the earth’s surface can be determined with almost any degree of 
accuracy desired. When the triangulation is connected with astronomi- 
eal determinations of latitude, longitude and azimuth, geographic 
positions of points on the earth’s surface can be derived. 

Triangulation is based on the elementary mathematical principle 
that when the length of one side of a triangle and the angles of that 
triangle are known the lengths of the other two sides can be computed. 
In actual practice base lines, varying in length from 4 to 15 miles, are 
measured on suitable terrain and from such bases chains of triangles 
are extended across the country to cover areas that are to be investi- 
gated scientifically or which are to be surveyed and mapped. Neces- 
sarily, the two ends of a triangle side must be intervisible from the 
ground, or structures in the form of stands or towers must be erected 
in order that the observer at one end of the line may see a pole, target, 
heliotrope or lamp placed directly over the station at the other end. 

Every nation of the world that is well-developed industrially has at 
least made a start in extending a triangulation net over its area. In 
the United States we have about 27,000 miles of are of first-order 
triangulation and traverse, by which geographic positions are deter- 
mined, in addition to what is called third-order triangulation which 
has been executed along our coasts. Then, in the interior of the 
country, there is a large amount of triangulation of various orders 
below first-order which has been used in the topographic mapping. 


1 Received January 11, 1930. 
53 


54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 


FIRST-OROER TRIANGULATION OF NCRTH AMERICA, 














work eaniioted or for whe 
reconnassonce has been “ 


1| Glock bonds sa Mexico @ ol lhe United 
States ipdicote work accomps/ished. 


Hrolched bonds tn Conoda\ ovd fhe Uniled Stotes sAadicote 
Elwork co Templeted for fhe \/mmediore future, 


rrow Bonds Mdgrcae fraverse-—— 


Sonuary /, 19 P 





Fig. 1.—Triangulation of North America, showing recent work in Canada, the United 
States, and Mexico. 


eee ee ee 


FEB. 19, 1930 BOWIE: TRIANGULATION 55 


First-order triangulation which is the framework on which all lower 
orders are based is now being executed only by the Coast and Geodetic 
Survey. This bureau will supplement the first-order work with ares 
of second-order triangulation. ‘The ares of these two classes of trian- 
gulation will be so spaced that when the network is completed there 
will be few places in the United States more than about 25 miles from 
a first or second-order triangulation station. 

In this high grade triangulation the best available theodolites are 
used. The tendency has been during the past few decades to reduce 
the theodolites in size but to increase the accuracy with which the parts 
are fitted together, to improve the optics and to increase the refinement 
with which the horizontal circle is graduated or divided. Since the 
atmosphere is seldom very clear, only in exceptional cases is it possible 
to make observations on poles or targets, for the lines are in general 
more than 8 miles long and sometimes reach a length of 100 miles or 
more. Heliotropes have been used as targets on which to make obser- 
vations but they can only be employed when the sun is shining and 
even then only during the latter part of the afternoon when the atmos- 
phere becomes steady. For several decades the Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
vey has been making practically all the angle measurements for the main 
scheme of triangles at night. For this purpose, automobile headlights, 
each provided with a contracted filament lamp, are used. The beam 
going out from such a lamp can be easily observed with the unaided eye 
at distances varying up to 40 miles if the atmosphere is at all favorable. 
In some parts of the country, notably the southwest where the atmos- 
phere is generally quite clear, the light from the signal lamp has been 
seen with the unaided eye over distances of more than 100 miles. 

Thirty-two pointings are made over each line of the triangulation 
during the angle measurements and the average of the results is used as 
the direction to be employed in computing the angles of the triangles. 
Necessarily in the computations the spheroidal shape of the earth’s 
surface must be taken into consideration. If the lines are only a frac- 
tion of a mile long the curvature of the earth really does not affect the 
measured angles, but the spherical excess, the amount that the sum of 
three angles of a spherical triangle exceeds 180 degrees, is in some cases 
more than one minute. 

The closing error of the triangles as observed for first-order triangula- 
tion averages slightly under 1”. This accuracy is all that is required 
for any except the most special scientific work. 


56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 20, No. 4 


The base lines of the triangulation are measured now with 50-meter 
invar tapes and the probable error of the derived length is seldom 
greater than one part ina million. The actual error is believed to be 
seldom or never greater than 1/300,000. 

The principal purposes of the triangulation are eminently practical. 
In the subdivision of our country into states, counties and even smaller 
political units, it is essential that the boundary lines be known in their 
proper geographical positions. The triangulation of the country fur- 
nishes just the information that is needed in the accurate location of such 
political boundary lines. It is also essential that the boundaries of 
private property be easily recoverable. This can be assured whenever 
geographic positions or plane coordinates are determined for the angle 
points of the boundary of a farm or of a city lot. When such coordi- 
nates have been given and they are referred to the general triangulation 
system of the country, it is possible to relocate the boundary corners 
even though all of the monuments set on them may have been de- 
. stroyed. 

Triangulation furnishes information of value in connection with the 
alignment surveys of highways and railroads and in bridge and tunnel 
location and construction. Also it furnishes the basis for the surveys 
made along rivers for flood control or river improvement. Its most 
important practical value is in connection with the charting of the 
coasts and the topographic mapping of the country. Commercial 
and naval vessels must have accurate charts. There are few important 
human activities that do not depend for their successful execution on 
exact knowledge of geographic positions, distances, directions, eleva- 
tions and the configuration of the ground. All of this information is 
furnished by the modern topographic map. That map in turn depends 
on the triangulation system of the country in order that the various 
adjoining sections of it may be accurately fitted together. When the 
triangulation system of the whole country is used in mapping there will 
not be those gaps, overlaps and offsets where two maps meet which 
oiten bother the cartographer who constructs them and others who use 
them. ‘Triangulation is used extensively in military surveying and 
mapping. ! 

Triangulation also has very important scientific values. It is 
only by means of connected ares of triangulation with the astronomic 
latitudes and longitudes determined at some of the stations that one 
can determine the dimensions of the earth. From gravity data alone 
the shape of the earth can be obtained, but triangulation by which dis- 





FEB. 19, 1930 BOWIE: TRIANGULATION 57 


tances across wide areas are measured is necessary for the determina- 
tion of the size. The shape and size of the earth have already been 
determined a number of times but in each case the data used covered 
only a comparatively small part of the earth’s surface. With more 
extensive data over greater areas closer approximations to the true 
figure of the earth can be made. 

The shape and size of the earth are needed in all surveying and 
mapping operations which are executed on a large scale, in navigation, 
and in explorations. The figure of the earth is needed as well as the 
distances between widely separated points in connection with certain 
astronomical observations, especially in the determination of the 
parallax of the moon. 

It has been found that the combination of astronomical and triangu- 
lation data enable one to learn much in regard to deviations from nor- 
mal density in the outer portion of the earth. In fact it is by means of 
astronomical and triangulation data that the first comprehensive quan- 
titative test of isostasy was made. It was found that the material 
under continental areas is lighter than normal while the material under 
ocean areas is heavier than normal. The deviations from normal 
density were found to be sufficient to balance the topographic features. 
This condition of balance or equilibrium of prisms of the earth’s crust 
is called isostasy. : 

While the application of the principle of isostasy to triangulation an 
astronomical data brought these data into very close agreement it was 
found that there were some outstanding differences. Further inves- 
tigation in the field of isostasy involving values of gravity led to the 
rather definite conclusion that the abnormalities or residuals in the 
geodetic data resulted from the presence of extra heavy or extra light 
material near the geodetic stations, both horizontally and vertically. 
It seems to be reasonably certain that the deflections of the vertical, as 
differences between triangulation and astronomical data are called, 
can be used for the purpose of disclosing buried structure. There 
is now available in the United States a large amount of geodetic data 
in the form of deflections of the vertical which can be used in connec- 
tion with geological studies. 

Now that isostasy has been substantiated as a scientific principle we 
are able to use triangulation and astronomical data to show the devia- 
tions of the geoid or water surface of the earth from the spheroid or 
mathematical surface which most nearly fits the geoid. A surface can 
be passed through the astronomical stations at right angles to the direc- 


58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 


tion of gravity and also through the derived directions of gravity at 
places where triangulation has not been executed or astronomical 
observations made, but where the deflection of the vertical on the 
isostatic principle has been computed. What might be called a geoid 
contour map could be constructed which would show the deviations 
of the geoid from the spheroid. 

One of the most notable cases of the use of triangulation in a scien- 
tific problem was the measurement, by means of a base and triangula- 
tion, of the distance between San Antonio Peak and Mt. Wilson in 
southern California for the use of Prof. A. A. Michelson in the deter- 
mination of the velocity of light. The length of the base was about 
22 miles while the distance between the two peaks was about 23 miles. 
Every possible correction was applied to the triangulation in order to 
eliminate the effect of systematic errors. The base line was measured 
with a probable error of about one part in 10 million, while the probable 
error of the distance between the two peaks was about one part in 6 
million. It seems reasonably certain that the distance furnished Prof. 
Michelson was not in error by as much as one millionth of the distance. 

Triangulation has been used in this and other countries in the deter- 
mination of the distortion of the earth’s surface during earthquakes. 
Already rather extensive investigations have been made in California 
by means of triangulation, and plans are now being formulated for 
an extension of the tests. Ares of triangulation are being extended 
across areas where there are fault zones which have been active in his- 
torical or at least in late geological time. It is planned to have this 
triangulation repeated at intervals of ten or some other number of years 
to see if any strains have taken place in the earth’s material. Should 
an earthquake occur along any of the faults or in fact anywhere in the 
vicinity of this triangulation the work will be repeated in order to learn 
how much movement of the ground had occurred at different distances 
from the fault, and how far from the fault one must go in order to find 
undisturbed points. These tests by triangulation in regions of seismic 
activity are of particular importance to the geologist for by them he 
can obtain an idea as to whether an earthquake is a local or a general 
phenomenon. | 

The Coast and Geodetic Survey has in the last few years made a 
readjustment of the triangulation net of the western half of the United 
States involving about 13,000 miles of are. The bureau is now engaged 
in the computation and adjustment of the net of the eastern half of the 
country. The latter work will be completed in the next two or three 


FEB. 19, 1930 REESIDE: CRETACEOUS PELECYPOD 59 


years after which standard or final geographic positions can be furn- 
ished for the triangulation stations to engineers, scientific workers, or 
others who may need the data. Of course there is no such thing as a 
final position for there is abundant evidence that the earth’s surface 
during geological time has undergone changes both vertical and hori- 
zontal, but it seems reasonably certain that very few of the triangula- 
tion stations of this country will be affected by geological processes to 
an extent that will vitiate the data in a few hundred years at least. 
Regions of considerable seismic activity will of course have triangula- 
tion stations whose positions are likely to change during earthquakes 
and even between such earthquakes but such areas form only a small 
portion of the total area of the country. 

The accuracy of the triangulation, as shown by the adjustment of the 
western net, is quite remarkable. ‘There were 16 circuits with peri- 
meters averaging about 1200 miles. ‘The average closing error of these 
circuits was about one part in 430,000. There were only two of the 
circuits for which the closing error was greater than about 1/200,000. 
While it is doubtful if the length of a line of triangulation is known with 
an accuracy greater than 1/100,000, yet where there is a series of such 
lines combined to measure a distance across country, the errors of the 
individual lines tend to balance out according to the law of AGENT Er 
tion of accidental errors. 

The scientific and practical needs for triangulation data are increas- 
ing from year to year. The demands for such data have led the Presi- 
dent of the United States to include in his budget for the fiscal year 
1931 a substantial increase in the money to be devoted to geodetic 
surveys, including triangulation. It is hoped that the triangulation 
net composed of first and second order work will be finished within the 
' next ten or twelve years. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—A Cretaceous pelecypod with color markings. 
JOHN B. ReEsipg, JR., U. 8. Geological Survey. 


Color markings are so rarely preserved on fossil shells that the ex- 
ceptional case of their preservation seems always worthy of record, 
particularly where the genus concerned is extinct. The writer here 
presents a note and figures descriptive of a species of Jnoceramus re- 
lated to Inoceramus stantoni Sokolow from the lower part of the Mancos 


1 Received January 4, 1930. Published with the permission of the Director of the 
U.S. Geological Survey. 


60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 


shale of Vermilion Creek, Moffat County, Colorado.2 The specimens 
are completely flattened in a calcareous shale and the original sculp- 
ture and outline may be only guessed at. The fossils in adjacent lay- 
ers, however, show that the age of the beds is that of the lower part of 
the Niobrara limestone (Coniacian). 

The markings on these shells show as light-brown, nearly straight 
bands radiating from the beaks and gradually increasing in width 
toward the basal margins. The width of the individual bands differs 
much, though there seems to be a wider band near the middle of each 
shell and narrower bands on each side of it. What the original color 
of the bands may have been seems scarcely worth conjecture, but it is 
beyond doubt that the pattern preserved is that of the coloring of the 
shell in life. 





Figure 1.—Jnoceramus aff. I. stantoni Sokolow, from the Mancos shale of Vermilion 
Creek, Colorado. Three individuals showing color markings. U.S. National Museum 
cat. No. 73736. 


PETROGRAPHY.—Pacificite, an anemousite basalt.1 Tom. F. W. 
BartTu, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washing- 
ton. (Communicated by L. H. Apams.) 


Introduction. In many lavas the amount of silica is insufficient for 
the formation of feldspar, and consequently minerals undersaturated 
in silica are formed, among them the feldspathoids. Microscopic 
investigations of the undersaturated lavas of the Pacific island volean- 
oes have shown that nephelite occurs throughout the area, forming 


2 See Tu1s JOURNAL, 20: 40. 1930. 
1 Received January 18, 1930. 


FEB. 19, 1930 BARTH: PACIFICITE 61 


nephelite basanite, as well as phonolitic trachyte and, rarely, phonolite, 
these lavas being in much smaller amount than the basalts. The 
minerals of the sodalite graup and analcite, as well as melilite, occa- 
sionally occur, but the feldspathoid leucite is never met with at the 
Intra-Pacifie volcanoes. 

It has been noted, however, that there occur certain purely feld- 
spathic basalts, without nephelite and usually with olivine, the analyses 
of which show the presence of very considerable amounts of nephelite 
in the norm, although none of this appears in the rock. A number of 
these rocks have been studied by me and the conclusion has been 
arrived at that much of what is apparently a normal plagioclase is in 
reality anemousite. 

Anemousite is a plagioclase with carnegieite in solid solution, carne- 
gieite being the triclinic form of the molecule Na;Al,8i.03, which ordi- 
narily occurs as the hexagonal nephelite. Anemousite was first 
described by Washington and Wright? on specimens from the island of 
Linosa, in the Mediterranean, this being, so far, the only known occur- 
rence. Carnegieite has been made artificially,? and it appears to be the 
abnormal nephelite described by Esch from the Kamerun.‘ Bowen: 
has studied the system, nephelite (carnegieite)-anorthite. The possi- 
bility of the presence of anemousite or carnegieite instead of nephelite 
in lavas, dependent on the conditions of solidification, was pointed out 
in the paper. on the feldspar from Linosa, in which it is said (p. 64): 
“With identical chemical composition of the rock, we would have in the 
one case a nephelite tephrite, and in the other a feldspar basalt, but 
the norms of both would be the same and would show normative nephe- 
lite.’ The pacificites are an example of this. 

We have in these lavas a rock that, under other conditions, would 
have contained very considerable nephelite, whereas this molecule 
actually enters a triclinic plagioclase. Under the former conditions 
the rock would be a nephelite basanite or tephrite, while it has the 
mineral composition of a feldspar basalt. Recognition of this difference 
seems to be called for, so that I propose the name pacificite for this group 
of anemousite basalts. If olivine is present in abundance the rock 
would be called olivine pacificite. This name is appropriate inasmuch 


2 WASHINGTON and WriecutT, Am. Journ. Sci. 29: 52-70. 1910. 

’Tuucutt, Neues. Jahrb., Beil. Band 9: 561. 1894; WasHinaton and Wria«xt, 
op. cit., p. 64; Bowrn, Am. Journ. Sci. 38: 564. 1912; Bowrn and Greta, Ibid., 10: 
204. 1925. 

4H. Escu, Sitzb. Berl. Akad. 18: 400. 1901. 

5 BOWEN, op. cit., pp. 551-573. 


62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 


as such anemousite-bearing lavas would seem to be widely scattered 
throughout the Intra-Pacifie basin, as is shown by the descriptions and 
analyses published by Lacroix, Washington, and others. For example, 
in discussing the lavas of Maui, it is remarked® that the alkalic tend- 
ency of these rocks is indicated “by the constant presence, modal or 
normative or both, of nephelite in the andesites and basalts of Halea- 
kala.”’ 

Although the feldspar of the pacificite is undersaturated it can not be 
called feldspathoid, and consequently the rock can not be reckoned 
with the tephrites or basanites, because according to the definition 
of these the presence of a feldspathoid is essential. ‘Therefore pacificite 
is to be classed with the basalts. 

Mineral composition. A quantitative description of two pacificites 
follows. 

1. Pacificite. Three miles from Rest House, Haleakala, Maui, 
Hawaiian Islands. Analyzed by M. G. Keyes, under name of 
nephelite andesine basalt.7 

This rock is somewhat trachytoidal in texture. Abundant thin 
laths of plagioclase grade on the one hand into larger phenocrysts 
(labradorite), and on the other hand into an interstitial groundmass 
(anemousite). Very few phenocrysts of euhedral olivine, and many of 
grayish brown pyroxene are present. In the groundmass very minute 
augite grains and much ore are met with. 

Olivine (2 per cent’). The axial angle is very close to 90°, some grains 
probably show a negative character. The composition is consequently 
about 15 fayalite.® 7 

Pyroxene. The phenocrysts and microphenocrysts of pyroxene 
make up 15 per cent of the rock; the amount in the groundmass is 
probably somewhat lower. The axial angle is 2Vy = 56°+ 3°, dis- 
persion p > v, the extinction angle is c : y = 48°. The refringence 
shows some variation, indicating a different composition of the various 
grains; an average value is 8 = 1.705. 

The value of 2V indicates that no appreciable amount of either 
clinoenstatite or acmite can be present, and the value of 6 indicates an 
amount of about 50 per cent of the diopside molecule, the rest being 
chiefly hedenbergite. 


6 WasHINGTON and Keyes, Am. Journ. Sci. 15: 216. 1928. 

‘ WASHINGTON and KEYEs, op. cit., p. 21C. 

3 This is the volumetric percentage found by the Rosiwal method. 

* This is approximately the composition of the olivine of Kilauea, as shown by 
AvURovssEAU and Merwin (Am. Mineral. 18: 560, 1928). 


— a ae ee eee 


FEB. 19, 1930 BARTH: PACIFICITE 63 


Ore (8 per cent). The percentage of ore shown in the thin sections is 
less than that shown in the norm. This is because much of the norma- 
tive magnetite and ilmenite is modally present in the augite. It was 
not possible to determine the relative amounts of magnetite and ilmen- 
ite in the thin sections, but the norm indicates that the amount of 
ilmenite is equal to that of the magnetite or that the latter is very 
titaniferous. 

Feldspars. The phenocrysts show the following properties: 


The lowest index of refraction, a = 1.557 : 55 An 
Maximum extinction in zone L (010), a’:(010) = 33° : 58 An 
Positive axial angle, 2V = 75° : 55 An 

Extinction angle in section Ly, a:a = 28° : 53 An. 


This feldspar may be an anemousite, for the data correspond fairly 
well with those given by Wright? for the anemousite from Linosa. How- 
ever, the above data also fit in very well with a normal labradorite, and 
since no further proofs of the presence of carnegieite are obtainable, the 
feldspar of the phenocrysts may be regarded as a normal plagioclase 
of about 50 An. 


TABLE 1.—Ca.tcuLATION OF THE MINERAL COMPOSITION OF PACIFICITE FROM 





HALEAKALA 

Anemousite Labradorite Ola 
Ore ee Can ae a (15 Fa) Pyrox.| Apat. | Total 
oy Diy, Shel one ee oie 6.9 6.7 | 14.5 4.6 0.8 | 2:1 45.6 
SO PES Ao hk, ort oe 4.3 0.8 Sek 
JN Sal pene a naa 1.9 on 4.1 3:9 0.6 16.2 
Fe,03 nb ORES CACORE OORT OEE OPS Bt) 0.9 4.4 
CIO ree ial yee es nehikes 9.0 0.3 1.9 7.0 
BUM ee Sh pits ae hoce & OR on 4.1 
CAO he aes, Dy i on Gea 8.5 
1 ic Oc ee 3.5 7D 0.1 6.1 
LG) Ce ee ae Cone 1.8 1.8 
OO tee a 0.5 0.5 
“TRG SGST DOR ee eae 2k ee an oe one fe 1 Sron tO 2Gn) lor On Ze Oe6 ugile eee) 12 | 10020 


The more sodic feldspars of the groundmass, however, certainly ex- 
hibit optical properties that do not correspond with those of any normal 
feldspar series.!° The shading of the feldspar laths into an interstitial 
groundmass is accompanied by a lowering of the refringence. A 
common value of the mean index is 8 = 1.550 +, while a still is higher 


10 This was referred to andesine or oligoclase-andesine by WASHINGTON and KeEyrEs, 
who determined the optical characters only approximately. 


64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 


than 1.545; the axial angle of such grains is (+) 2V = 60° + 3°. 
It is hardly possible to detect any grains with 6 lower than 1.550, 
obviously indicating that neither nephelite nor ordinary alkali feld- 
spars are present. 

There does not exist any known mineral with the above stated 
optical properties. But since the aspect is very much like that of a 
feldspar, and since the chemical analysis of the rock shows that some 
undersaturated mineral has to occur, a plausible explanation is that this 
mineral belongs to the anemousite series. 

The calculation of the rock analysis is shown in Table 1. Table 2 
shows the mode compared with the norm. 


TABLE 2.—MoprE AND NorM OF PACIFICITE FROM HALEAKALA 


Mode | Norm 

IMETHOUSILG : 04. Ske eck oe eae) AS” | OTe aha. toy 02's 5 ss oh ee 10.6 
Prariociase (o0"An)<..5. 2 aoe5s6. ee TOMAR aro Ss. Oe a ek eee 21.0 

Ameen 117 
PPT ORENE 42 ci tstes Steals ae ds C2) ee 20 WN INGp a aa dd woesuig ets acl: wah eer 16.5 
SmnenC a Pa) ses ti. ok opie. oe ee DPD... eas sa. ets sha cae oe ZL. 3 

ORM 2 RO eee ie 
(0) 1 Dobe Nags a Re I I ee DS | I te ok oe pace, ate os ote eh Se ee 6.5 

Lh en 9.7 
re ee TE DAD. ne Anne 13 


A pyroxene from Haleakala has already been studied by Washington 
and Merwin." A comparison of the composition of this pyroxene!” 
with the calculated composition of the pyroxene in the pacificite gives a 
further proof of the correctness of the interpretation of the rock analy- 
sis. The molecular compositions (by weight, with titanium dioxide 
reckoned with silica) are as follows. 


Analyzed Augite from 


augite pacificite 
AD OSTAG es is Came ts en ee 66 
PCCeR DEL OIGe 00:5 ee Ee A Se 2 a 2a 
TMS eles a nes, oe Mee ee pn 5 3 
Pes Cathe tor). ph). SE eet be 2 
Besqmmom@es (0/29/22), Sarr ta Oy 9 5 


For the analyzed augite: 6 = 1.706, c:7 = 48°, 2V. = 60°: for the 
pacificite augite: 8 = 1.705, c:y7 = 48°, 2V = 56°. 


11 WASHINGTON and MEerwIn, Am. Journ. Sci. 3: 117. 1922. 
12 This pyroxene was found along the trail from the Rest House to Red Hill. 


FEB. 19, 1930 BARTH: PACIFICITE 65 


The slightly higher content of hedenbergite in the augite of the 
pacificite is probably due to the admixture of the groundmass pyrox- 
enes which presumably are richer than the phenocrysts in iron. 

The anemousite is not homogeneous but consists of a series of solid 
solutions. The average composition by weight calculated from the 
chemical analysis comes out as follows: 


Orunoclasen soe eee. ME aD 
ANIC TUG Saag Sabiltaldee Maou ies se AME! ans Charge 30 
ENMIOEUNTLCR 0/4 See eee. eee ee te 1D 
Warnemielie le ees: MEME eee cys Bo 


This composition must correspond with fair accuracy to that of the 
average feldspar of the groundmass of the rock. No serious alteration 
of the figures is possible, and since the optical properties of the ground- 
mass exclude with certainty any ordinary undersaturated mineral, 
the fact that this rock represents a new lava type has been established, 
and in all probability the undersaturated mineral must be looked upon 
as an anemousite feldspar. 

2. Olivine pacificite. Kaula Gulch, above Ookala, Mauna Kea, 
Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands. Analyzed by H. S. Washington 
and by him called chrysophyric basalt.18 

This lava contains abundant phenocrysts of olivine in a very fine 
grained, grayish groundmass consisting of small crystals of pyroxene, 
a little ore and some feldspar laths that partly grade into an inter- 
stitial feldspar-like mineral. 

Olivine (17 per cent). The negative axial angle is 85°, the mean 
index of refraction, 6 = 1.703, corresponding to 26 Fa. 

Pyroxene (34 per cent) shows somewhat variable optical properties. 
The positive axial angle is around 58°, and the mean index is about 
ee 1000. 

The index indicates an amount of not less than 40 per cent diopside, 
and the axial angle shows that no clinoenstatite or acmite molecules 
are present in appreciable amount. ‘The residual 60 per cent must 
consequently be chiefly hedenbergite. The amount of sesquioxide 
is presumably small, but can not be accurately stated. 

Ore (6 per cent) is a mixture of ilmenite and magnetite. 

Feldspars. Very few phenocrysts (much less than 1 per cent) of 
labradorite-bytownite (about 72 An) are present. 


13 WASHINGTON, Am. Journ. Sci. 5: 499. 1928. 


66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 


Some of the well developed thin feldspar laths in the groundmass 
have a mean index of refraction, 8 = 1.555—-1.550; they are optically 
positive with 2V about 85°, and may consequently be regarded as 
normal plagioclase with the composition of a calcic andesine. The 
more sodic feldspars, however, are anomalous," a great many of them 
show the following properties: 6 = 1.545 + 0.002, (+) 2V = 84° + 4°. 

Some feldspar powder of the rock was obtained by magnetic separa- 
tion and was embedded in different index liquids. On grains lying 
normal to an optic axis the following measurements were made: 


1.545 
(+)84 


1.550 
(+ )85 


1.552 


1.540 | 1.535 
(+)85 


(+)75 | (+)80 














Variations of the axial angle from +10° to +65° were observed on 
grains of low refringence (8 < 1.540). 

That the relation between the refringence and the axial angle in these 
feldspars is very different from that in the plagioclase series is shown 
graphically in Fig.1. Since all the potash feldspars and also the nephe- 
lite are optically negative, they can with certainty be excluded, and 
thus the only possible explanation again seems to be that these feld- 
spar-like minerals belong to the anemousite series. 


TABLE 3.—MopeE Anp Norm OF OLIVINE PACIFICITE FROM KauLa GutcH, Mauna KEA 


Mode Norm 

JN Onn ST th he ee ie = 34 | ORs Stee oh ie hie ee ee 5.6 
Prraciacse (45 An) | si. ec eee Fe | CADE oe be Oe ooo ae ee 19.9 

AMe Potash sf bs%cn eon ee ee 6.1 
LEE Crs |p ge ae id ek ae eee Sp Ne. 2 244 DSP De. eee 10.8 
treme Bayes 2. dc iiycee hich Oe cla pe 18.9). Dike cco ue gk abored ob etews eee 30.9 

Ole on bk dine Se ee neg 17.3 
on Eyes cy De Oe ed oy a COMB as cds snk Se ee eee 4.9 

Y). a0 ee eee 4.3 
A pesee ieee TE Sayan BANE i) Apy .5 ai.) << Sates See ee eee 1.3 


The mode and norm of this rock are entered in Table 3. The method 
of calculation is the same as that which was used for the rock previously 
described. ‘The figures are in perfect agreement with the microscopic 
observations. 


14 The colorless substance of the ground mass was doubtfully referred to nephelite by 
WASHINGTON, who remarks that its amount is much less than that of the nephelite in the 
norm. 


~ 


FEB. 19, 1930 BARTH: PACIFICITE 67 


The calculated average composition of the pyroxenes is as follows: 


DAO OSIO Hee ass ss sane 61 
IbfedemochetGa |. te a oe ee 
PME TING Cater SO8 SW Soya ols... AMEE, Soe ane 4 


The calculated average composition of the anemousite is: 


Ort mnoc Se Pe. es ek I ee ae IG ty id a 9 
PIGOS eee Ce heen a «Dee eh ell 54 
GA ROTRUGL GTI Fc ie SRC rn eR A spe ne a ee a IB 
CAME OTOIUC eos See ee Rade MURS ome S oo 8 24 





Ba 155 1 5y 153 


Fig. 1.—The axial angle plotted against the mean index of refraction for the plagio- 
clase series and for the series of feldspar-like minerals occurring in the pacificite. The 
value at 8 = 1.559 is taken from Wright’s (Washington and Wright, Am. Journ. Sci. 
29: 52-70. 1910) measurements on anemousite from Linosa. 


The preceding pages contain all the information on this anemousite 
feldspar available by analytical and optical methods. Several vain 
attempts have been made to obtain pure anemousite from the rock 
for a chemical analysis. But these lavas are too fine grained; very fine 


68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 4 


dust and minute grains and skeletons of ore and pyroxene are mixed 
with the colorless minerals in such an intricate way that even if the 
rock is ground down so extensively that the powder sticks together 
like clay, and all methods of mechanical separation are carried out very 
slowly, it has been impossible to get even approximately pure material. 
Of course it is possible to concentrate the colorless minerals, but so 
much of the dark minerals is always admixed that the calculation of the 
composition of the colorless phases can never be very accurate, because 
an estimation of the proportion and nature of the colored contamina- 
tions in such a finely ground powder would always be a mere guess. If 
the calculation is based directly on the chemical analysis of the rock, 
however, both the amount and composition of the colored minerals 
can be obtained by optical analysis. 

It is hoped that a study of the system nephelite-albite will throw 
more light on the nature and properties of anemousite. In connection 
with such a synthetical study the genesis of the pacificites will also be 
discussed. 

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. H. S. Washington of 
this Laboratory for the free ‘use I have had of his large rock collection, 
for his furnishing me with data of the petrology of the Pacific Islands, 
and for his very welcome criticism of this paper. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 


225TH MEETING 


The 225th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on 
Thursday, April 4, 1929. 

Program: AUSTIN H. Cuarxk of the U. 8. National Museum delivered an 
illustrated address on Evolution. Any tenable theory accounting for the 
development of animal forms must take into consideration three distinct, but 
interrelated, sets of facts. These are: First, indubitable evolutionary lines, 
such as those found in the horses; second, breaks or gaps in the continuity of 
these lines, and especially between the lines themselves, as between the cat 
and the dog lines; third, the fact that all fossils, including the very earliest, 
fall at once into their respective phyla as the phyla are defined on the basis of 
the data derived from recent animals alone—in other words that in all 
geological history there has been no change in the interrelationships between 
the phyla. Perhaps the term evolution might be so restricted as to cover only 
development of animal types within the phyla, the word mutations being 
used to indicate the gaps, and primagenesis might be used to cover the 
original formation of the phyla by different paths of development from the 
single cell; the entire concept of the development of animal forms might be 
called zodgenests. 


FEB. 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 69 


The evolutionary history and present interrelationships of animal types 
are a reflection of the possibilities for variation afforded in the early stages. 
These are least in the birds, which form the most unified of.any of the verte- 
brate groups. Indeed, all of the vertebrates together show scarcely more 
structural diversity than is seen in certain individual species of insects or 
crustaceans in the course of their life history. 

The relationship between man and any one of the apes may be compared 
to that between the greyhounds and the bull-dogs, which differ physically 
and mentally both from each other and from the wolf from which they are 
derived and do not intergrade either with each other or with the wolf. These 
dogs thus illustrate perfect continuity of descent coupled with abrupt dis- 
continuity of form and mental attributes. The ancestor of man is not known, 
but probably was not an ape as we understand that term. (Author’s abstract.) 


226TH MEETING 


The 226th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on 
Friday, May 10, 1929. 

Program: Epwarp W. Berry of Johns Hopkins University delivered an 
illustrated address on The history of the Andes. Among the major tectonic 
features of the earth the Andes are unique in their continuous great elevation 
over 65 degrees of latitude; in that they overhang a coast with several great 
deeps near shore; and in that they cross much of the equatorial and south 
temperate zones and hence lie across the paths of the two most continuous 
and most important wind systems of our planet—the southern trades and 
the south temperate westerlies. Nearly all of the apparent anomalies of 
South American climate are explained by this fact, which is also the clue to 
the most important method for arriving at the amount and date of uplift of 
the present mountains. 

In the central and northern Andes the present coastal region lies in the 
rain shadow of the moisture-carrying trade winds, gets little moisture from the 
Pacific because of the cool Humboldt or Peruvian current, and is consequently 
a desert or semi-desert. In the southern Andes, Patagonia lies in a rain 
shadow of the moisture-carrying ‘‘roaring forties’’ and is consequently arid. 
The evidence furnished by late Tertiary fossil plants, which have been col- 
lected from a great many localities on both sides of the mountains as well as 
from great elevations within the montane belt, shows that the major elevation 
did not take place until near the close of the Tertiary period, or slightly later. 
Traces of wet lowland tropical forests, whose existing relatives are confined 
to the basin of the Amazon, are found at elevations of from 11000 to 13500 
feet along with petrified woods showing no seasonal rings, and similar floras 
are found fossil in the Peruvian desert. Similarly, fossil floras indicative of a 
heavy rainfall, and with coal measures, are found not only along the West 
Coast in southern Chile, but also east of the present mountains in the, at 
present, arid belt of Argentina. 

These prove that the amount of vertical elevation since Pliocene time 
amounted to over 5000 feet as a minimum figure. This is corroborated by 
the present physiography with its discordant stream profiles, by the great 
topographic maturity of the more elevated as compared with the less elevated 
parts of the terrain, by the finding of marine Pliocene fossils in the southern 
Andes at elevations of over amile, by observed changes in the drainage pattern, 
and by the distribution of the present life—especially the plants, birds, and 
freshwater fishes. 


70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 4 


The general geologic history of South America was shown to have con- 
sisted of sedimentation in a series of geosynclines extending approximately 
north and south, the western margins of these geosynclines lying progressively 
farther west during the Paleozoic. The major periods of folding, according 
to our present information, were in supposed pre-Cambrian rocks, in pre- 
Carboniferous rocks, in the pre-Mesozoic rocks, and in the pre-Cenozoic 
rocks. Igneous activity appears to have reached a maximum during the 
Cenozoic, and the major uplift was many millions of years subsequent to the 
folding of the rocks. The antecedent times when the Andean segment was 
above sea level were early Cambrian, and earlier, part of the Ordovician, 
late Devonian and early Carboniferous, during the Permian (maximum earlier 
emergence) and most of the Triassic. 

The address was illustrated by diagrams and maps showing the main 
tectonic lines, the climatic elements, etc., and views illustrating the types of 
country developed in the various climatic zones and in the rocks of various 
geological ages. (Author’s abstract.) 


227TH MEETING 


The 227th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on 
the evening of Tuesday, November 26, 1929. 

Program: The meeting was devoted to a symposium on The 1929 Scientific 
Explorations in Alaska. Brief addresses on the various phases of the work 
were given by ALES Hrpui¢éKa for Anthropology, H. B. Cotuins for Archeol- 
ogy, R. Y.Sruart and E. E. Carter for Forestry, PHitip Smits for Geology, 
and W. R. Greae for meteorology. Abstracts of most of these addresses 
follow: 

The 1929 anthropological researches of the speaker in Alaska were devoted 
to the Yukon River, throughout its extent (2300 miles). Their main objects 
were to secure anthropometric data on the remaining full-blood Indians and 
Eskimo along the river; to collect whatever older skeletal remains might still 
be found along the river; and to advance as far as possible our knowledge of 
the earlier settlements or migrations along the Yukon River. Substantial 
and interesting progress was made in all these directions, notwithstanding 
the inclement season. The expedition resulted in the securing of valuable 
data as well as much of the older skeletal material, and due to good fortune 
brought also a large series of specimens belonging to the fossil ivory culture 
of the northwestern Bering Sea and northeastern Asia. (Author’s abstract.) 

Archeological investigations of the past four years around Bering Strait 
have revealed the existence of an ancient phase of Eskimo culture more highly 
developed, especially in regard to art, than any since known to the Arctic 
regions. This old Bering Sea culture is apparently ancestral to the extinct 
Thule culture, the most ancient Eskimo culture of the eastern regions. 
However, there may possibly have been a late return migration which super- 
imposed certain Thule traits on the older Bering Sea culture. A vague simi- 
larity in art and other general resemblances in material culture may indicate 
an ancient connection with the Indians of the Northwest Coast, although 
this cannot be determined until some knowledge is had of the archeology of the 
latter region. Therich curvilinear art of the old Bering Sea culture has been 
traced through a transitional stage, much less elaborate, into the still simpler 
patterns of the modern Eskimo. The early stages have not been found. 
Evidence of a direct and indirect nature points to Northeastern Siberia, 
between the Anadyr and Kolyma Rivers, as the probable place of origin of 
the old Bering Sea culture. (Author’s abstract.) 


FEB. 19, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS all 


There is great need for continued employment within the Territory. 
The activities there are largely seasonal. The fishing season is quite short 
and the timber and mining work must be curtailed in the open during the 
more rigorous months. The largest opportunity for building up a twelve 
months pay roll seems to lie in the establishment of forest industries in the 
Territory, such as the pulp and paper industry, which could operate their 
plants throughout the entire year. There is also a large opportunity open 
for the development of trade in fur-bearing animals, if the proper protection 
is given to the range available to them. The need for protection in this 
respect is much greater in interior Alaska than in southeastern Alaska because 
the fire hazard is more acute in the interior. (Author’s abstract.) 

Five projects were undertaken by the Geological Survey, namely, (1) in 
cooperation with the Forest Service inducing the Navy Department to send a 
detachment of airplanes to southeastern Alaska to photograph 12,000 square 
miles for mapping and study and participating in the conduct of the work in 
the field; (2) a reconnaissance of the Alaska Range at the head of the Copper 
River valley and extending northward into the Tanana Valley; (3) an ex- 
ploration of the western slopes of the Alaska Range west of Cook Inlet and 
north of Lake Clark; (4) a scouting trip into parts of the Yukon-Tanana 
region of central Alaska, with a view to visiting tracts that had not heretofore 
been studied and making a comprehensive correlation of the geology of that 
general region; (5) the installation of a new seismograph at Dutch Harbor, 
Unalaska Island, and the rehabilitation of the seismograph at Kodiak Island 
and the placing of observers at each of these stations. In addition, the 
Geological Survey carried on its usual investigations of the general develop- 
ment of the mineral resources of the Territory and its technical administra- 
tive duties relating to the operations under leases and permits granted for 
mining certain mineral deposits on Government-owned lands. (Auwthor’s 
abstract.) 

In 1927 the Alaskan Legislature requested codperation and assistance from 
the Federal Government in the development of facilities for safe and efficient 
flying in the Territory. One of the aids specially requested was the organiza- 
tion of an airways weather service. A definite start to this end was made 
early in 1929. Fairbanks was chosen as the organization center largely 
because it is the point from and to which there is the greatest amount of 
flying. Five substations have been established, at Anchorage, Crooked 
Creek, Dillingham, Golovin and Ketchikan. These regularly report by 
Signal Corps radio twice daily, or oftener if necessary, to Fairbanks. In 
addition, reports are received from twelve other stations which had previously 
been established. The observations are used not only for the information 
they give as to current conditions but also as the basis for flying-weather 
forecasts. In addition, permanent records are kept and these will be used in 
statistical and other studies of conditions in this region,—one of the most 
interesting, meteorologically speaking, in the world. (Author’s abstract.) 


Water D. Lambert, Recording Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


The Geological Society of America, together with its affiliated organizations, 
the Mineralogical and Paleontological Societies, held their annual meetings 
from December 26th to 28th in Washington, celebrating the fiftieth anni- 


72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 


versary of the creation of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Most of the sessions 
were held at the Wardman Park Hotel, but some at the National Museum. 
Thursday evening the retiring President of the Geological Society, Professor 
HernricH Riks, gave an address entitled Some Problems in the Non-metallics, 
pointing out how much remains to be learned as to the origin, significance, 
etc., of many deposits of non-metallic minerals. In all about 125 papers ona 
wide variety of subjects were presented. 


A series of five illustrated lectures relating to The evolution and cultural 
history of mankind is in progress under the auspices of the Anthropological 
Society of Washington. They are being given in the auditorium of the U. 8. 
National Museum and are open to the public. Dr. Fay CoorrrR-CoLe spoke 
on January 7 on The coming of man, and Dr. ALES HrpiicKa on January 21 
on The differentiation of man into races and his spread over the earth. The 
remaining lectures are as follows: February 4, Dr. CLarK WisstER, The 
culture area; February 18, Dr. Hnerpert J. Sprinpen, The Civilizations of 
Middle America; March 4, Mr. Neitz M. Jupp, Prehistoric pueblos and cliff- 
dwellings of the Southwest. 


Mr. Herpert J. Krrecer, of the National Museum, is continuing field 
work in Santo Domingo, where he has been carrying on anthropological re- 
searches during the past two years. Mr. Henry B. CoLuuiins is inspecting 
excavations at village sites at Vaughan, Miss., where work is being carried 
on by the University of Mississippi. 


Mr. Grorces G. AINSLIE, of the Bureau of Entomology, is spending several 
months at the National Museum in a study of certain groups of moths. 


Mr. Kurt TricHertT, who has a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship in 
paleontology for 1930, is studying American Ordovician and Silurian fossils 
in the National Museum for comparison with those of Europe. 


Dr. F. DREVERMANN, Director of the Senckenbergische Institution at 
Frankfort, Germany, recently visited the department of geology of the 
National Museum to examine methods of preservation and exhibition of 
collections. 


The second half-year of the Bureau of Standards Educational Courses has 
recently begun. In addition to the continuation of most of those announced 
in This JouRNAL 19: 442, there are to be courses in advanced pas theory and 
the theory of elasticity given during this period. 


The second semester of the Department of Agriculture Graduate School 
has also opened. New courses comprise: Physiology of plant growth and 
development, Russian for beginners, and business cycles in relation to agri- 
culture. 








fee NP EMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND 
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


es : Wednesday, February 19. 


Thursday, February 20. 
Friday, February 21. 


a Saturday, February 22. | 
Wednesday, February 26. 


Friday, February 28. 
Saturday, March 1. 
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The Academy 

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The Academy 

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The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if 
sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month. 


CONTENTS 


ORIGINAL PAPERS 
Page 
Geodesy.—The scientific and practical value of triangulation. Witu1am Bowie.. 53 


Paleontology.—A Cretaceous pelecypod with color markings. JouNn B. Remsips, JR. 59 


Petrography.—Pacificite, an anemousite basalt. Tom. F. W. BARTH............... 60 
PROCEEDINGS 

The AGADEMY .. veevice ccs os cece ne PUREE UC Es at ob soba dea bet. hae .. 68 

Scrmentiric NOTES AND NEWS . ..¢ oibga cic we eae ewok snacvank a ca cuepaes aaa 71 


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Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 Marcu 4, 1930 No. 5 


GEOPHYSICS.—WNote on a comparison of sunspot numbers, terrestrial 
magnetic activity, and long wave radio signal strength L. W. 
Austin, Bureau of Standards. 


The figure shows a comparison of the monthly averages of sunspot 
numbers, terrestrial magnetic activity (horizontal range) measured 
at Cheltenham, Md., and the daytime ratio field strength of signals 
received in Washington from the trasmitting stations at Bordeaux, 
France (FYL) (f = 15.9 kc, } = 18900 m,) and at Nauen, Germany 
(DFW) ( = 23.4 ke, \ = 12800 m). 

The resemblance of the sunspot curve to the other three is not close, 
but the similarity in the changes in magnetic activity to those in day- 
light signal strength seems to be unmistakable. The resemblance of 
the Bordeaux signal curve to that of the magnetic activity seems closer 
even than the resemblance between the two signal curves. The 
deep drop of both the magnetic and signal values in November (more 
rarely in December) is especially striking. This early winter drop in 
signals has often been noticed, and in the case of transmission between 
Europe and America, has been sometimes ascribed to the proximity 
of the signal path to the area of Arctic darkness. It now appears that 
this and other seasonal variations both in magnetic activity and 
East-West long-wave signal strength may be due to common causes. 


1 Received January 22, 1930. Publication approved by the Director of the Bureau 
of Standards. 


73 


74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 5 


As 





NUM BE, 


MAGNETIC ACTIVITY 


(HORIZONTAL RANGE) 


GAAMIAS 
% 
Ss) 


780 S/G/VAL 
FIELD STRENGTH 


ie BORDEAUX (F YL) 
fi 
/40r} 
teal 
Li /20 | 
x 
Q\/00 V 





y 

Qq 

Q 60 S/GNAL 

= FIELD STRENGTH 
Ss NAUEN (OF W) 

\ 50 

9 

S 

S 40 





‘h Woh: 


Spi eet Se Rey Res ee Be Ko eS Ke SR 
STS SSIS Seyyrs sys sss escn eee 
1924 JIZ5 1926 192 1/928 1929 


Fig. 1.—Curves of sunspot numbers, magnetic activity, and radio signal strength. 


BOTANY .—The identity of the South American fish poisons, “cube” 
and “‘timbé.”! E. P. Kiuurp, U. 8. National Museum, and A. C. 
SmirH, New York Botanical Garden. 


Recent investigations by chemists and entomologists, members of 
the Department of Agriculture staff, and others have shown that the 
roots of a plant called “‘cube’”’ contain a substance of value as an in- 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


MARCH 4, 1930 KILLIP AND SMITH: FISH POISONS 79 


secticide.2 The plant was brought to the attention of the Department 
of Agriculture through the suggestion of William J. Dennis, an Ameri- 
ean resident in Peru, who obtained a patent (U. S. No. 1,621,240) 
on its use. The roots first tested came from Huancayo, a city of 
the high cordillera of Peru; a second lot of roots was obtained later 
from Iquitos, in the low-lying Amazon region of northeastern Peru. 
The plant was said to be a shrub about five feet high. Little additional 
information was available. 

On a trip of botanical exploration which we have just made into the 
interior of Peru and across Amazonian Brazil in the interest of the 
Smithsonian Intitution and the New York Botanical Garden we saw 
thousands of plants of ‘‘cube’ in cultivation on plantations, and in a 
wild state in the dense forest occasional plants that appear to be nearly 
or quite identical. The name cube’ was applied to it in the region about 
Huancayo and southward. Farther to the north in Peru the plant was 
referred to locally as “‘cofiapi’”’ or ‘‘pacai,’”’ the most commonly used 
names, however, being ‘‘barbasco legitimo’”’ or simply “barbasco,”’ 
which is the general name given to fish poisons in Spanish America. 
In Brazil the word ‘‘timb0’’ is used for fish poisons in general, the ‘‘bar- 
basco legitimo’ of Peru becoming “timb6é legitimo.’ In British 
Guiana cube and other fish poisons are known as “‘haiari;’ in French 
Guiana the word “‘nicou” is similarly employed. 

We found that although several kinds of plants were used as fish 
poisons, such as Cracca toxicaria, Cracca nitens, and one or more species 
of Clibadium, and in Brazil, certain species of Lonchocarpus, one plant 
alone (cube) was most commonly cultivated and almost everywhere 
was said to be the most powerful. Curiously we never discovered 
this plant in flower or fruit, a circumstance giving rise to interesting 
speculation. Inasmuch as the roots are dug up at the end of the third 
or fourth year and we rarely saw individuals that were more than six 
or seven years old, it is possible that the plant flowers only with age. 
Or, cultivated for centuries as a fish poison, the present plants may 
represent a selected strain in which the content of the roots is at a 
maximum and the production of inflorescence at a minimum state. 

From the vegetative characters it seems clear that the plant in 
question is Lonchocarpus nicou (Aubl.) DC., described! by Aublet 
in 1775 as Robinia nicou from a plant cultivated in French Guiana. 


2 See Dept. Agr. Bull. 1201: 6-7, 10-20, 34, 58, 54. 1924; Science 70: 478-479. Nov. 
15, 1929. 

’ Pronounced coo’bay. Sometimes called cubi (coo’bee). 

ENING HIGR TANG D. (il. ple ose, Leto. 


76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 5 


Le STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM 


XPLORATION IN PERU 





Fig. 1. Lonchocarpus nicou (4 natural size). 


MARCH 4, 1930 KILLIP AND SMITH: FISH POISONS Cth 


In shape and size the leaflets correspond almost exactly with those 
figured by Aublet; in both cases the tips are caudate-acuminate and 
the bases show variation from subacute to subrotund. Portions of 
our material were submitted to the British Museum (Natural History) 
for comparison with the type specimen of Lonchocarpus nicou, and the 
comparison has confirmed our identification. The striking appressed 
pubescence noted on the under surface of the leaflets in recent material 
is matched in the original. Aublet states, moreover, that his plant 
was used as a fish poison under the name “‘nicou.”’ 

From our field observations and from study of the herbarium mate- 
rial collected the species may be described thus: 


Loncuocarpus Nicovu (Aubl.) DC. Prodr. 2: 261. 1825. 


Robinia nicou Aubl. Pl. Guian. Franc. 771, pl. 308. 1775. 

Shrub or small tree, up to 3 meters high,® with a main stem 4 to 8 cm. in 
diameter, with branches borne near summit, the trunk and the branches 
becoming scandent with age, the trunk sometimes climbing upon nearby 
shrubs or trees often to a height of 10 meters; leaves alternate, odd-pinnate, 
the base of rachis and petiolules thickened, the leaflets opposite (2 to 4, 
usually 3, pairs), oblong, occasionally lance-oblong or oblanceolate-oblong, 
12 to 25 cm. long, 4 to 10 cm. wide (average size about 17 x 8 cm., extremes 
up to 35 cm. long, 17 cm. wide), caudate-acuminate at apex (tip averaging 2 
em. long), subacute to subrotund at base, entire, coriaceous or subcoriaceous, 
above dark green, sublustrous, and essentially glabrous, beneath paler, 
sometimes glaucescent, usually densely covered with straight appressed 
reddish- or golden-brown hairs,* pinnate-nerved, the midnerve sometimes 
impressed above, prominent beneath, the lateral nerves 7 to 10 to a side, 
ascending, arcuate toward margin, the venation closely reticulate. 


Aublet describes the inflorescence as: 


“Calix; perianthium monophyllum, turbinatum, quinquedentatum. Co- 
rolla, papilionacea, purpurea, vexillo amplo, erecto. Pericarpium; legumen 
longum, acutum, gibbosum, glabrum, rufescens, uniloculare, bivalve. Semina 
tria aut quatuor, subrotunda, compressa, marginibus valvarum affixa,.”’ 

The type specimen was collected in a clearing above the home of M. Budet, 
at Orapu, French Guiana. 


Specimens examined :’ 


> Our notes show the following variation of the height with age: 

Plants 1 year old, 0.75-1.3 meters; plants 2 years old, 1-1.3 meters; plants 4 years old 
but recently cut back, 1-1.7 meters; plants 2 years old, 1-1.7 meters; plants 2 to 3 years 
old, 2.5-3 meters; plants 3 years old, 3.7 meters; plant 2 years old, 2.2 meters high, the 
main stem bending toward a tree and climbing up its trunk to a height of about 8 meters. 

6 In the case of forest plants and those in overgrown abandoned plantations, the in- 
dument was invariably paler and less dense, owing presumably to the greater amount of 
shade. 

7 Unless otherwise stated the collections here cited are of cultivated plants collected 
by the writers. 


\ 
78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 5 


Peru: Dept. Ayacucho: Kimpitiriki,s Rio Apurimac, 400 meters, nos. 
22913, 23053. Dept. Junin: Near La Merced, 1300 meters, no. 23878; Santa 
Rosa, on Pichis Trail, 650 meters, no. 26200; Puerto Yessup, 400 meters, 
no. 26369; Puerto Bermudez, 375 meters, nos. 26490, 26597, 26612; El Trionfo, 
on Rio Pichis, 350 meters, no. 26692; Cahuapanas, on Rio Pichis, 340 meters, 
no. 26712. Dept. Loreto: Puerto Leguia, 290 meters, no. 27504; Masisea, 
275 meters, no. 26837; Iquitos, 100 meters, nos. 26886, 26893, 26895, 26945, 
27096, 27135, 27159, 27278, 27362, 27369, 27380, 27487; Mishuyacu, near 
Iquitos, nos. 29917, 29957; Pefia Blanca, on Rio Itaya, near Iquitos, 110 
meters, no. 29668; Yurimaguas, lower Rio Huallaga, 135 meters, nos. 27565, 
27566, 27994, 27997, 28211, 28812, 29061, 29066; Balsapuerto,135-350 
meters, nos. 28158, 28255, 28300, 28325 (wild), 28458, 28586 (wild), 28621 
(wild); Lower Rio Marafion, 150 meters nos. 29279, 29280; mouth of Rio 
Santiago, Tessmann 4447 (in Berlin herbarium; fragment U.S. N. M.). 





Fig. 2. Plants of Lonchocarpus nicou. Fig. 3. Lonchocarpus floribundus. 


Braziu: State of, Amazonas: Mandos, 25 meters, no. 30026, 30038, 30137, 
30177 (apparently wild). State of Pard: Gurupa, lower Rio Amazon, no. 
30608 (apparently wild); Breves, Amazon Estuary, no. 30576; Para, no. 
oe State of Matto Grosso: Santa Izabel, F. Lima (Herb. Mus. Goeldi 
10863). 


British Guiana: Demerara, Parker (in Kew herbarium). 


8 At this locality alone the name ‘“‘cube de almidén’’ was sometimes used, ‘‘almi- 
dén’’ meaning starch. 


MARCH 4, 1930 KILLIP AND SMITH: FISH POISONS 79 


From this list it may be seen that we found the plant most exten- 
sively cultivated in the region about Iquitos (100 meters altitude). 
Many of the plantations contained several thousand trees. Yurima- 
guas, on the Huallaga River, a few miles above its mouth, is also a 
center of cultivation. Doubtless this is also the plant used by the 
natives of eastern Ecuador. Our stops in Brazil were few, but we found 
Lonchocarpus nicou, both in the forest and in cultivation, at Mandos 
and Gurupd, and in cultivation at Paré. In material recently lent us 
through the courtesy of the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Kew, England, there is a specimen of a cultivated fish poison from 
Demerara, British Guiana, that clearly is Lonchocarpus nicou. 

A more-detailed account of South American fish poisons, including 
descriptions of the native method of use, is in preparation for future 
publication. At present it seems advisable to mention two other 
plants, the roots of which serve for poisoning fish. 

Along the south bank of the Rio Negro above Mandos we found a 
large plantation of a second species of Lonchocarpus, L. floribundus 
(Killip & Smith 30041). This was a low shrub, 1 to 1.5 meters high, 
in fine flower and fruit. ‘The roots were of a softer, more porous tex- 
ture than those of Lonchocarpus nicou, but were said to be quite as 
effective as a fish poison. Samples of these are being analyzed. 

At Gurupa, a settlement on the lower Amazon River at the mouth 
of the Rio Xingt, several plants of ‘a third species of Lonchocarpus 
were obtained, the roots of which were reported as a fish poison even 
more effective than Lonchocarpus nicou, which also is grown in that 
vicinity. This exceptionally powerful plant had been identified? 
by Dr. Adolfo Ducke, the Director of the Museu Nacional of Rio de 
Janeiro as Lonchocarpus nicou. Although at the time of our visit, Nov- 
ember, the plant was neither in flower nor in fruit, excellent flowering 
and fruiting material has generously been deposited in the U. S. 
National Herbarium by Dr. Ducke. Comparison of this with Aub- 
let’s description and illustration of Lonchocarpus nicou leads us to the 
conclusion that it represents a distinct species. In this Gurupa 
plant the leaflets have short tips, not over 1 cm. long, and the fruit is 
broadly ovate to oblong-ovate; whereas, as already noted, the leaflets 
of Lonchocarpus nicou are long-acuminate (tip 2 to 4 em. long) and the 
fruit, as shown in Aublet’s illustration, is linear-oblong. 

The Gurup4 plant may be known as: 


* Archiv. Jard. Bot. Rio de Janeiro 4: 88, 89, 139. 1925. 


80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 5 





Fig. 4. Lonchocarpus urucu (type specimen, 3 natural size). 


MARCH 4, 1930 KILLIP AND SMITH: FISH POISONS 81 


Lonchocarpus urucu Killip & Smith, sp. nov. 


Robust, much-branched shrub, the upper branches slightly scandent, 
the bark of the larger branches grayish, that of the smaller branches brown, 
lenticellate, and usually puberulous; leaves 5- to 9-foliolate, the rachis sub- 
terete, longitudinally striate, 12 to 25 cm. long (leaves of scandent portions 
much smaller), puberulous with dark brown or grayish, often gland-tipped 
hairs, the base (about 1 cm.) very fleshy; petiolules fleshy, sparingly puberu- 
lous; leaflets broadly ovate, obovate, or oblong, 10 to 17 cm. long, 5 to 8 cm. 
wide, abruptly short-acuminate at apex (tip 5 to 10 mm. long), rounded at 
base, pinnate-nerved (nerves prominent beneath and covered beneath with a 
dark brown or blackish indument, the midnerve impresed above, the sec- 
ondary nerves 9 or 10 to a side, ascending, arcuate toward margin), thick- 
coriaceous, essentially glabrous and lustrous above, appressed-hirtellous with 
reddish-brown hairs beneath; racemes axillary, 3 or 4 borne near the ends of 
stout branchlets 8 to 18 em. long, the rachis 10 to 20 em. long, rufo-sericeo- 
tomentose; flowers in short-peduncled, closely approximate fascicles, the 
pedicels about 3 mm. long, densely rufo-sericeo-tomentose; bractlets orbicu- 
lar-ovate, 0.7 to 1 mm. long, acute; calyx cylindric-campanulate, 4 to 5 mm. 
long, 2 to 2.5 mm. in diameter, densely rufo-sericeous, 5-toothed, the teeth 
triangular, 2 mm. long, 3 mm. wide at base, the two vexillar teeth connate 
into a broad lobe 5 mm. wide at base; petals reddish violet, pubescent without 
(especially distally), with short, appressed, pale hairs, the wings and carinal 
petals conspicuously ciliate at apex; standard suborbicular, bilobulate at 
apex, rounded at base to a narrow claw 3 mm. long, the blade about 10 mm. 
long, 12 mm. wide; wings obovate-oblique, rounded at apex, tapering at 
base to a narrow claw about 4 mm. long, the biade 9 mm. long, 5 mm. wide; 
carinal petals falcate, auriculate, obtuse, the claw 4 mm. long, the blade 9 
mm. long, 5 mm. wide; staminal tube glabrous, slightly dilated at base, the 
filaments about 13 mm. long, free for the ultimate 3 mm.; ovary sessile, 
linear, minutely pale-puberulous, 4-ovuled; style about 7 mm. long, glabrous 
or slightly pubescent, arcuate; stigma capitellate, slightly broader than the 
slender tip of the style; legume broadly ovate to oblong-ovate, 4 to 9 cm. 
long, 2.5 to 3 em. wide, rounded or subacute at apex, subacute or bluntly 
acuminate at base, strongly flattened, minutely hirtellous with subappressed 
hairs, 1- (rarely 2 or 3) seeded, the vexillar margin faintly ridged, the carinal 
margin rounded; seeds cochleate-reniform, about 2 cm. long, 2 em. wide, dark 
brown. 


Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,040,936, from a plant culti- 
vated at Gurup4, State of Para, Brazil, September 29, 1916, A. Ducke (Museu 
Goeldi no. 16561, flowering specimen). Description of the fruit is based on a 
specimen collected by Dr. Ducke at the same locality in November, 1923 
(Jardin Botanico Rio de Janeiro no. 11708; U. S. National Herbarium no. 
1,442,506). 

Represented also by Killip & Smith 30585, from the same locality. The 
name “‘timbo uructwi”’ is given this plant by the natives because of the reddish 
indument of the inflorescence. 


82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 5 


ZOOLOGY .—A new raccoon from Lower California. E. W. NELSON 
and E. A. GotpMAN, Biological Survey. 


Study of the raccoons of Lower California has indicated differential 
characters for a hitherto unrecognized subspecies inhabiting the south- 
ern half of the peninsula. The new form may be described as follows: 


Procyon lotor grinnelli,? subsp. nov. 
Lower California Raccoon 


Type-—From La Paz, Lower California, Mexico. No. 147181, @ adult, 
U.S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by Nelson 
and Goldman, February 15, 1906. Original number 19139. | 

General characters.—A large, pale subspecies with a rather broad, high, 
evenly arched skull. Similar to Procyon lotor pallidus but slightly darker 
and cranial characters, especially the more evenly arched profile of skull, 
distinctive. Compared with Procyon lotor psora, general color paler, more 
grayish, less deeply suffused with buff, the long black guard hairs over dor- 
sum less in evidence; top of head grayer, less heavily mixed with black; black 
areas at posterior base of ears smaller; skull with frontal region more highly 
arched. 

Color.—Type: Upper parts in general coarsely grizzled iron grayish, the 
median dorsal area faintly suffused with pale buff, becoming pronounced on 
back of neck, rather thinly overlaid with black; top of head gray, mixed with 
black, producing a grizzled effect; face with solid black mask and white 
markings usual in the group; under parts in general overlaid with very pale 
buffy grayish, the brown undertone showing through; throat patch blackish; 
ears grayish, with rather small black patches at posterior base; limbs about. 
like under parts, but becoming whitish on feet; hind limbs with a small, pure 
brownish area on outer side near heel; tail with the usual annulations and 
black tip, the light rings pale cream buff and the narrower dark rings (six in 
this specimen, varying to seven in others) consisting of black-tipped hairs 
with an underlying buffy suffusion; dark rings less evident on under side of 
tail and scarcely complete, tending to fade out on median line, except two 
near tip. 

Skull.—Similar to that of P. l. pallidus, but braincase and interorbital 
region broader; frontals rising higher anteriorly, the upper outline a more 
evenly convex curve (anterior frontal outline descending in a more nearly 
straight line from apex immediately behind postorbital processes in pallidus); 
dentition about the same. Compared with that of P. 1. psora the skull is 
less flattened, the frontal region more highly arched; braincase rather broad 
and other cranial details much as in psora. 

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 913 mm; tail vertebrae, 335; hind 
foot, 132. Skull (type): Greatest length, 122.1; condylobasal length, 115.5; 
zygomatic breadth, 77.9; interorbital breadth, 24.3; least width of palatal 
shelf (between last molars and interpterygoid fossa), 16.7; upper canine- 
molariform toothrow (alveolar length), 44.1. 


1 Received January 27, 1930. 

2 Named for Dr. Josep GRINNELL, Director of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 
University of California, in recognition of his extensive contributions to the knowledge 
of the fauna of Lower California. 


MARCH 4, 1930 SHAMEL: OPOSSUM FROM ARGENTINA 83 


Remarks.—Two subspecies of raccoons enter northern Lower California. 
These are Procyon lotor pallidus Merriam, of the Colorado desert in the north- 
eastern part of the peninsula, and the animal described by Mearns as Procyon 
lotor californicus from the ocean beach near the last Mexican boundary 
monument, San Diego County, in the southwestern corner of California. 
The latter inhabits the comparatively humid northwest coast region of Lower 
California south to San Quentin. Some specimens from near the type 
locality of calzfornicus suggest gradation toward pallidus, but general com- 
parisons indicate that calzfornicus can not satisfactorily be separated from 
P. l. psora Gray, from Sacramento, California. 

Raccoons are dependent upon water for existence, and owing to exceed- 
ingly arid conditions in the central section of Lower California their general 
range is interrupted for considerable distances. ‘The form here described, 
occupying the southern half of the peninsula differs rather markedly in com- 
bination of characters from both of the more northern subspecies. It re- 
quires no very close comparison with P. 1. mexicanus of the adjacent main- 
land of Mexico, which in general, is paler, with the black postauricular spots 
obsolescent, and skull notably depressed in frontal region. 

Specimens examined.—Kight, all from Lower California, as follows: La 
Paz (type locality), 2; Mount Miraflores, 1; San Ignacio, 5. 


ZOOLOGY .—A new murine opossum from Argentina.: H. Haroup 
SHAMEL, U. 8S. National Museum. (Communicated by JoHN 
B. REESIDE, JR.) 


In 1920, Dr. A. Wetmore visited southern South America in the 
interests of the United States Biological Survey to make a study of 
the present status of northern migratory birds, particularly shore 
birds, which winter in the southern portion of the southern’ hemis- 
phere. While engaged in this work he incidentally made a collection 
of 120 mammals, which is now in the U. 8. National Museum. In 
this collection I have found a small opposum new to science. | 


Marmosa muscula sp. nov. 


Type.—Adult male skin and skull, No. 286330 U. S. National Museum, 
collected by Dr. A. Wetmore in Formosa, Kilometro 182 (Central Formosa), 
Argentina, August 9, 1920. 

Diagnosis.—A very small member of the genus, the smallest so far known, 
distinguished by its mouse-like coloration and its comparatively short tail. 

Color.—This little animal is brownish in general tone of color. The hairs 
everywhere dark slate for the greater part of their length, this area followed 
by a subapical ring of colonial buff (Ridgway 1912). On the back the ends 
of the hairs are tipped with mars brown (Ridgway 1912), which gives to the 


1 Received January 28, 1930. 


84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 5 


back a mixed buff and brown appearance, neither element strongly pre- 
dominating. On the sides the buff is nearly clear and the dark tips are few 
and inconspicuous. Underparts clear colonial buff, the dark bases of the 
hairs showing through inconspicuously. ‘There is a dark-brown eye ring, 
also a dark streak from the corner of the eye to the nose. Cheeks, sides of 
head, and shoulders are reddish brown, which changes into buff on the sides 
of the body. ‘The tail is dark brown above, much paler below. 

Skull.—In the skull the sides of the frontals are expanded, but unridged; 
in the interorbital region this swelling extends well down into the orbit; nasals 
pointed at juncture with the frontals, a portion of frontal coming down wedge 
fashion between them; the premolars are spaced closely together, all touching, 
the second (pm?) being longer than the first or third. 

Measurements.—T ype: Total length, 123; tail, 55; foot, 11; ear (moistened) 
from crown, 9; total length of skull, 21.5; condylobasal length, 19.6; zygoma- 
tic width, 11.5; interorbital width, 3.5; length of nasals, 8.5; width of brain- 
case, 8.5: maxillary tooth row (including incisor), 8.2; mandibular tooth row, 
8.5; height of mandible, 6.5. 

Remarks.—Marmosa muscula is next smaller than M. bruchi in general 
size, but the pale color and much longer tail (89.0 mm) of the latter will 
readily separate them. It is very mouse-like in appearance and even smaller 
than some specimens of Mus muscula in this collection from Buenos Aires, 
thus representing one of the smallest marsupials known. This specimen 
was examined by Oldfield Thomas of the British Museum of Natural His- 
tory who said, ‘“The Marmosa is a very distinct little species, quite unlike 
anything I have seen, , , M. bruchi has a white belly and the body mark- 
ing of the M. marmota group.”’ 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


737TH MEETING 


The 737th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 19, 1929, with 
President WETMorE in the chair and 55 persons present. 

The President announced the membership of the standing committees 
of the Society as follows: Committee on Communications: W. B. BEL, 
Chairman, V. Battey, W. H. Wuitst, Lewis Rapcurre, W. R. Maxon, 
W. L. Scumitt; Committee on Zoological Nomenclature: G. S. Mrusr, Jr., 
Chairman, A. C. Baker, Paut Bartscu, E. A. Cuapin, H. C. OBERHOLSER; 
Committee on Publications: Cuas. W. Ricumonp, Chairman, J. H. Ritey, 
F. C. Lincoun, W. H. Wuite. 

A. WETMORE announced that the Pinchot expedition to the South Seas, 
although its collections have been received only in part as yet, has already 
sent a dozen forms of birds new to the National Museum. 

Program: J. M. Aupricu: Notes on the life zones of northern Europe 
(illustrated).—The speaker collected flies at Aare, Sweden, last July, and while 
there ascended the mountain called Aareskutan, just back of the hamlet. 
The railroad station beside the river has an altitude of about 1500 feet, 
while the summit of the mountain reaches about 5000 feet. The first 500 


MARCH 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY 85 


feet of ascent is in spruce forests, corresponding to the Canadian Zone in 
North America. The spruces end abruptly and are succeeded by a narrower 
zone of birches, perhaps 300 feet in vertical width; these begin with a few 
large, scattered, old trees, changing into smaller and more crowded growth, 
then into dwarfed forms. All tree growth ends within 1000 feet elevation 
above the river. The birch zone is thought to represent the Hudsonian of 
North America; the rest of the mountain above is Arctic. (Author’s abstract.) 

HERBERT FRIEDMANN: Parasitism in birds (illustrated).—Parasitic breed- 
ing habits are found in five groups of birds—the cowbirds, cuckoos, honey- 
guides, weaver-birds, and ducks. The habit must have arisen independently 
in each, and the causative factors were probably different in the different 
groups. The cowbirds are the only group in which all the species have been 
studied and the evidence put together into a coherent story. 

The most primitive cowbird, the bay-winged cowbird of Argentina, is not 
parasitic but uses other birds’ nests in preference to building for itself. The 
others are all parasitic. The results of a careful survey of the habits of all 
of them show that the immediate case of the parasitic habit was the loss of 
the territorial protecting instincts of the male, leaving the female in a condi- 
tion where it lays eggs in nests which it has not built, and with no great 
desire to protect them once they are laid. (Auwthor’s abstract.) 


738TH MEETING 


The 738th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 2, 1929, with 
President WrTmMorE in the chair and 100 persons present. 

S. F. Buake reported that a freshly dead specimen of Solitary Vireo was 
found in Clarendon, Virginia, by H. A. ALLARD on November 1, 1929. 

I. Horrman stated that C. F. Drenty, who has a pheasantry near Washing- 
ton, had succeeded during the past summer in raising three Elliott Pheasants, 
the first to be grown in this country. He also raised about 16 other species of 
pheasant. 

Program: A. H. Howe: Recent notes on birds and mammals of the Ever- 
glades (illustrated).—The speaker described the bird and mammal fauna of 
the southern tip of the Florida peninsula, illustrating his talk with specimens 
and slides. He prefaced his remarks by a description of the topography and 
plant life of the region, showing that the flora of the hammocks along the 
southeast and southwest coasts and in the Cape Sable region is composed 
mainly of tropical trees and shrubs of West Indian origin. The insect and 
land snail faunas are likewise considered by those who have studied them to 
have been derived in large part from the West Indies. . Only about 6 species 
of birds of this region, however, are of tropical origin, these being confined 
mainly to the Florida Keys and to the mangrove forests on the coast of the 
mainland. There are no terrestrial mammals of tropical affinities found in 
Florida, the only tropical species being the manatee. A number of specimens 
of the rarer birds of the region were exhibited and suggestions made regarding 
the need for more rigid protection of certain disappearing species. (Author’s 
abstract.) 

HK. F. Cor, Chairman Tropic Everglades Park Association: America’s own 
tropics (illustrated).—The speaker, after referring to the rapid destruction 
of wild habitats by man, made an eloquent plea for the preservation of about 
2500 square miles of the Cape Sable region of southern Florida, which is still 
in a practically unspoiled condition and which represents practically the only 
tropical habitat in the United States. The talk was illustrated by numerous 
colored slides showing scenery and plant and animal life. 


86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 5 


739TH MEETING 


The 739th meeting was held November 19, 1929, with Vice-President 
JACKSON in the chair and 35 persons present. New members elected: 
CLARENCE CoTttTaM, BENJAMIN MILLER. 

S. F. Bake reported the observation on October 20, of what seemed to 
be a contest between two female English sparrows for possession of a birdbox. 
The birds fought vigorously inside the box, while a male sparrow perched 
nearby without taking part in the quarrel. 

Program: L. V. CoteMANn, American Association of Museums: Museums 
in South America.—The speaker described his recent trip to South America 
for the purpose of visiting the principal museums there. Besides mentioning 
the museums visited, he gave many interesting side lights on the countries 
and people visited. 

C. W. Stites: Proposals Submitted as Amendments to International Rules 
of Zoological Nomenclature.—The speaker presented a paper summarizing 
the propositions which have been submitted to the International Commission 
on Zoological Nomenclature as amendments to the International Rules. 
With each proposition, he discussed the theoretical background. A brief 
summary of the proposed amendments will appear in Entomological News, 
December, 1929. 

S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary. 


740TH MEETING 


The 740th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 30, 1929, 
with President WETMORE in the chair and 44 persons present. New member 
elected: J. W. BULGER. 

FRANK THONE called attention to several recent biological publications. 

A. WETMORE commented on birds new to the National Museum collections 
received from the Pinchot South Sea Expedition. 

Pau B. JOHNSON gave a brief review of the life and work of the Rev. 


FrANcIS TonporF of Georgetown University, a distinguished seismologist . 


and biologist. 

VERNON Baitey called attention to the fact that the natural food supply 
of squirrels is scanty this year and urged that steps be taken to provide food 
forthem. E. P. WALKER suggested a series of letters to newspapers to keep 
this need before the public. 

P. B. JoHNson reported seeing a black squirrel captured by a red-tailed 
hawk in the Zoological Park. 

A. WETMORE reported the capture of sharp-tailed sparrows at Ocean 
City, Maryland, last year, as well as the recent capture of two more specimens, 
one at Ocean City, the other at Cornfield Harbor, Maryland. 

Program: E. R. Katmpacu: Notes on waterfowl sickness in 1929 (illus- 
trated).—In 1914, 1915, and 1916, Dr. ALExANDER WETMORE made a study 
of the malady that had killed many thousands of ducks at Great Salt Lake, 
Utah. Certain soluble salts in the “‘alkali,’”’ prevalent in the shallow waters 
and on the mud flats of that area, were found to be the causative agents. 

Since that time “‘duck sickness’ has been noted in many other areas, some 
of which are quite different in character from the Great Salt Lake region. 
Although alkali in some form is almost always present at the scene of such 
outbreaks, its chemical composition varies greatly, and in some instances, 
“duck sickness”’ has occurred in areas in which the salts found to be the cause 
at Great Salt Lake are comparatively rare. 


MARCH 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 87 


A study of this ‘‘disease’’ was resumed during the past season in the general 
vicinity of Klamath Falls, Oregon, where a number of bodies of water fur- 
nished varied environments in which the sickness occurred. In discussing 
this work the speaker pointed out some of the unsolved aspects of the trouble, 
the progress that had been made, and explained that the study would be con- 
tinued next season. (Author’s abstract.) 

REMINGTON KutLtoca: The migration of whales  (illustrated).—See 
Smithsonian TES Report 1928: 467. 1929. 


W.B. Betu, Recording Secretary pro tem. 


T41ST MEETING 


741st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 14, 1929, with 
President WETMORE in the chair and 120 persons present. New members 
elected: HERBERT FRIEDMANN, F. A. WARREN. 

President Wetmore was nominated to represent the Biological Society on 
the council of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 

C. W. Stiuus discussed the nomenclature of the South American fox-tailed 
wolves. 

Program: O. J. Muri: Elk studies in the Jackson Hole region (illustrated). 
The elk is largely a grazing animal but also utilizes browse to a considerable 
extent. In some of the so-called waste-land on the winter range are found 
certain shrubby plants which are very palatable for elk and help to augment 
the winter food supply. One of the most important phases of the study is the 
question of disease. Squirreltail grass in the hay and perhaps other rough 
feed produce abrasions in the mouth of the elk, resulting in an infection with 
necrotic stomatitis. This causes an annual loss of elk which can perhaps be 
remedied by suppression of squirreltail hay and scattering the herds. Condi- 
tions on the summer range are very favorable for the elk. (Author’s abstract.) 

The speaker also showed motion pichaues of elk, moose, and other wild 
animals of Jackson Hole region. 

Discussed by V. Battry, who stated that he considered the ‘“‘fluting”’ of 
the elk to be a sort of song: by M. C. Hatt who considered that ticks and 
scabies are probably of real importance under wild conditions, but that inter- 
nal parasites are scarcely so; also by L.O. Howarp, C. W. Stites, W. B. BELL, 
and EK. A. GOLDMAN. 

Maurice C. Hau: Parasites of elk and other wild ruminants.—The para- 
sites of wild ruminants are of interest in connection with their actual or 
potential transfer from these ruminants to domesticated livestock, especially 
sheep, goats and cattle, and as forms which have transferred from domesti- 
cated livestock to wild ruminants. The evidence available points definitely 
to certain parasitic species as having made these transfers. Thus the common 
sheep stomach worm, Haemonchus contortus, has been found in at least 10 
species of wild ruminants in North America, whereas such species as Ostertagia 
bullosa, first found in sheep and later in the pronghorn antelope, and Cooperia 
bzsonzs, first found in the bison and later in domesticated cattle, are evidently 
normal parasites of wild ruminants transferring to domesticated ruminants. 
The common sheep liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, has been found occasionally 
in wild ruminants, while the large liver fluke, Fasciola magna, normally a 
parasite of American deer, has become a rather common parasite of cattle in 
some areas. The fringed tapeworm, Thysanosoma actinioides, is evidently a 
normal parasite of American wild ruminants which has become accustomed to 
sheep as hosts. 


88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 5 


Another feature of interest is the fact that parasites in unusual hosts may 
behave differently from the way they behave in their usual hosts. Thus 
Fasciola magna forms large cysts in the liver of cattle, apparently with no 
communication to the exterior whereby the eggs could leave the host and con- 
tinue the life cycle; little is known about this parasite in its deer hosts, but 
the present assumption is that it occurs in the bile ducts and thus is able to 
complete its life cycle in the usual way. The fringed tapeworm has been 
reported regularly from the small intestine of deer hosts, except in one instance 
where the writer found it in the fourth stomach of an elk, the worm being 
coiled in a ball with the head at the center, but in sheep the worm is frequently 
present in the bile ducts. 

The question as to what can be done to control parasites in wild ruminants 
presents several rather interesting and difficult problems. It is probable 
that these problems will increase in importance as wild animals are confined in 
smaller areas with a resultant concentration of parasitic infection. (Auwthor’s 
abstract.) 

S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Dr. Louis A. Bauer, Director of the Department of Terrestrial Mag- 
netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington since the establishment of 
the Department on April 1, 1904, retired from this position on January 1, 
1930, with the title of Director Emeritus. Provision is also made whereby 
if his health permit he may carry on studies during the coming year as a 
Research Associate of the Institution. Mr. Jon A. FLEMING, associated 
with Dr. Bauer as chief assistant in the Department of Terrestrial Mag- 
netism since 1904, as Assistant Director for observational and administrative 
work during 1922 and 1923, and as Assistant Director in charge of operations 
since 1924, continues in charge of the work of the Department with the title 
of Acting Director. 


@bituary 


Dr. WiLu1AM ALLEN OrTOoN, Director and General Manager of the Tropical 
Plant Research Foundation, and a member of the AcaDEmy, died on January 
7, 1930. He was born at North Fairfax, Vermont, February 28th, 1877, 
and studied at the University of that state, receiving the degrees of B.S. in 
1897 and M.S., in 1898; and in 1915, the honorary degree of Sc.D. After 
spending two years as Assistant Botanist at the Vermont Agricultural 
Experiment Station, he was appointed as Plant Pathologist in the Bureau of 
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, where he remained until 
1924, holding important positions including that of vice-chairman of the 
Federal Horticultural Board for 12 years. In 1924 he resigned from the 
government service to take up the position he held until the time of his death. 
For some years he was also Chairman of the Committee on Tropica] Research 
of the National Research Council. He was a member or fellow of numerous 
scientific societies, serving as President of the Phytopathological Society in 
1927. Besides being an eminent authority on plant diseases and quarantines, 
he made a study of diets adapted to use in diabetes, a disease from which he 
suffered for many years, and which finally led to his death in his 53rd year. 


e 

















: OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS 

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND 
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES — 

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS 


Tuesday, March 4 The Botanical Society 
Wednesday, March 5 The Engineering Society 


ee The Medical Society 
Thursday, March 6 The Entomological Society 
Friday, March 7 The Geographic Society 


Saturday, March8 — The Biological Society 
Tuesday, March 11 The Electrical Engineering Society 
Wednesday, March 12 The Geological Society 


| The Medical Society 
Thursday, March 13 ‘The Chemical Society 
Friday, March 14 The Geographic Society 


Boe eeearay; March 15 The Helminthological Society 
aia The Philosophical Society 
| Tuesday, March 18 ‘The Anthropological Society 
Bee Se The Historical Society 
GEES Wednesdey, March 19 The Engineering Society 
Fe The Medical Society 


ae we The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent 
to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month. 


OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. 


‘  Pecdent: Wituiam Bowtie, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
Corresponding Secretary; L. B. TucKERMAN, Bureau of Standards. 
Recording Secretary: CaarLes THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. 
ee conte Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 













ORIGINAL PAPERS | 
‘ Geophysics.—Note on a comparison of sunspot nemieee ke ix 
aS 3 tivity, and long wave radio signal strength. L. W. AusTIN..... a 


: Botany.—The identity of the South American fish poisons, “cube” 
j E. P. Kruure and A. C. Sarre. <0... ssa ogee eee ‘ 
Zoology.—A new raccoon from Lower California. E,W. Nuwson | and 
Zoology.—A new murine opossum from “Argentina. foo 3 : 






PROCEEDINGS 


* * 


oes ’ ‘ 
F . ae 


The Biological Society... ccsevecesereeecesececereesnetesssereeean, 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE a 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 Marcus 19, 1930 No. 6 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—Peat profiles of the Everglades in Florida: 
the stratigraphic features of the “‘Upper” Everglades and correlation 
with environmental changes.1. ALFRED P. DACHNOWSKI-STOKES, 
U. 8S. Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. 


INTRODUCTION 


In the following an account is given of the structural features of the 
Upper Everglades secured through a method of field work described 
elsewhere (5). The profile studies were made in the hope of deter- 
mining the origin and past history of this vast area of sedge peatland, 
probably one of the largest sub-tropical low moors in the world. 

The material was for the greater part collected in the winter months 
of 1920, 1928, and 1929. The field work in 1920 was made possible by 
the codperation and aid of G. V. Scott, engineer in charge of the Ever- 
glades State Drainage District, in whose company the more inacces- 
sible parts of the Everglades were sounded. In 1928 and 1929 the 
studies in the field have been supported by codperation from the Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station of the University of Florida. Their prose- 
cution was greatly facilitated by R. V. Allison of the Everglades 
Experiment Station at Belle Glade. The horizontal and vertical con- 
trol data and lines of elevation above sea level are due to assistance in 
1929 from engineers of the State Drainage District. The writer wishes 
to convey his sense of deep obligation to Dr. Wilmon Newell, Dean 
and Director of the State Agricultural Experiment Stations, to Dr. R. 
VY. Allison, and to Mr. G. V. Scott for the special facilities provided for 
studying in detail many parts of the Everglades. 


1 Received February 3, 1930. 
89 


90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 


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MARCH 19, 1980 | DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 91 


GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING THE STUDY OF EVERGLADES 
PEAT PROFILES 


The present paper does not pretend to reconstruct conditions in all 
parts of this region but aims to present briefly the profile record of the 
Everglades south of Lake Okeechobee and a consideration of the con- 
sequences of changes in water level and shore lines. 

The profiles used are representative of a much larger number ob- 
tained by the writer. The locations of the profiles along the several 
lines of traverse are indicated on the map Fig. 1 and the general rela- 
tions of the peat layers to each other and to the configuration of the 
bedrock are shown in Figs. 2 to 7. The large number of soundings 
plotted to scale has made it possible to check the several layers of the 


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EB se066 Pear 
Eh SEOIMENTARE PLAT 


Fig. 2.—Peat profiles from Lake Okeechobee at Canal Point, Florida, northwest to 
southeast along the West Palm Beach canal, showing rock-bottom topography and dia- 
grammatic details of the structural features of the Everglades. Surface variations are 
due to shrinkage, compression, and fires following drainage. Numbers at top of sec- 
tions and distance apart between cross-sections correspond to locations shown on map 
of Fig. 1. Elevations are based on one common geodetic datum of sea level. 


stratigraphic sections. The data from excavations made along the 
face of canals and from pits dug in differently situated parts of the same 
region show excellent correspondences wherever the exact location 
above sea level of the respective layers was determined. 

In Fig. 2 are reproduced in graphic form the results of soundings 
made with an American peat-sampling instrument. ‘The cross sec- 
tions illustrate a transect profile running from Lake Okeechobee at 
Canal Point southeastward along the West Palm Beach Canal to the 
eastern border of the Everglades. The contour of the bedrock of lime- 
stone is well shown and it is evident, despite the decrease in number 
of soundings going eastward, that the structural features of the profiles 
show marked uniformity. The same conclusion applies to the profiles 


92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 


in Figs. 3 to 5 which were taken parallel to the Hillsboro, North New 
River, and Miami canals. In the profile transect of Fig. 7 which 
combines the results of soundings along canals of two subdivisions of 











; § 

Sd bs xe 
18 I g : " ® 748 

q /e ~ Ny 
$s — = xh wF 
/é- 4 = = = SE 
15+ > == 1S 
/#> § PS = Sf 

=|= 
72 == 42 
/ = = un 
70 = V2) 
2 NE : a 
3 ‘hg 


Fig. 3.—Peat profiles extending from Lake Okeechobee northwest to southeast across 
the Everglades along the Hillsboro canal, showing form of the bedrock contour and the 
sequence of the major layers of peat, the character of which was influenced by changes 
of water level and shore lines. Locations of cross-sections are given on the accompany- 
ing map in fig. 1. 





9 * a 
‘a y 4 
/7 ne a 
16 = = +16 
/s = = 1s 
/4 = “t 
/s = “3 
la = “2 
“/ = 4/4 
10 = lo 
9 = 9 
8 = 8 
7 7 


Fig. 4.—Cross-sections along the North New River canal showing rock-bottom con- 
figuration, contrasts in the sequence of peat layers, and transition of stratigraphic fea- 
tures from Lake Okeechobee to Okeelanta and southward. Changes in water level and 
shore line are recorded by the character and succession of the major layers of peat. 
Number and location of each profile are shown on the map of fig. 1. 


the Drainage District, the sudden apparent greater simplicity of 
profiles near the western as well as the eastern border (Fig. 2), where 
they merge into higher land commonly called the rim of the Ever- 
glades, is particularly noticeable. 


MARCH 19, 1930 |= DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 93 


Before drainage began the Everglades presented the appearance of 
a broad, level, grass-covered prairie, sloping gently toward the south 
at the rate of about three inches per mile. Extensive drainage opera- 
tions have caused, however, compression of the canalward edge of the 
Everglades, often changing the characteristic position above sea level 
of the main layers of peat. ‘The profile sections along the south shore 
of Lake Okeechobee and the canals of the Everglades, it will be noted, 
show the discrepancy due to settling from drainage and the differences 
in the surface contour which now conform partly with the bedrock 
topography, but are chiefly the result of fires and oxidation. 

A striking and important feature of the Everglades is the raised form 
of the southern shore of Lake Okeechobee. In cross section the sur- 
face forms a curve, abrupt at the margin of the lake, sloping gently 
southward from twenty-one feet just south of Lake Okeechobee to 
about six feet above sea level west of Miami. ‘This slope is shown in 
the profile diagrams (Figs. 2 to 7) and on the charts of the main canals 
which accompany the reports to Congress of the Office of Experiment 
Stations, United States Department of Agriculture (7) and of the 
Florida Everglades Engineering Commission (8). 

The cause of the raised and convex form of many peat deposits and 
the presence of lakes and ponds on them has received frequent con- 
sideration. It is well known, for example, that Sphagnum mosses 
and marsh vegetation by their growth and the clogging up of drainage 
channels, raise the water level to considerable heights. The high- 
moors in Maine and in Europe, with ponds of standing water on the 
elevated surface, the presence of Lake Drummond within the Dismal 
Swamp near Norfolk, Va., and the ponded water of the present Lake 
Okeechobee are examples of such results. The interlacing net-work of 
roots and rhizomes from sedges and herbaceous perennials, constantly 
compacting under the increasing weight of accumulating plant remains, 
greatly hinders water from flowing out of the matted and felty-fibrous 
mass of peat to a lower level. Periodically changing in height under 
wet years and shrinking in drier times, the formation of areas of raised 
peat is generally attained best in humid climatic belts where the supply 
of water is abundant for the growth, of native vegetation and where 
layers of peat, more or less impervious, impound drainage water at 
varying elevations. Lake Okeechobee represents the height at which 
a layer of dense, finely divided sedimentary peat, superimposed upon 
a basal layer of fibrous sedge peat can pond a large body of water at 
the margin in a hydrostatic condition. Prior to drainage operations 


94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 


the lake did not rise to a higher stage than 223 feet because the lake 
overflowed its banks along the entire south shore. During prolonged 
periods of rainfall a sheet of water covered large portions of the Ever- 
glades, retarded in its movement by the dense growth of the saw-grass 
and the buoyancy of the water-soaked fibrous peat. 

For the attempt to reconstruct from the profile soundings some of 
the important physical conditions which prevailed in the past of the 
Everglades, the clue is taken in the succession of peat layers from the 
basejof the bedrock upward. Peat-profile studies carried out with 
uniform methods, as described by Lundquist (12), correlate and har- 






9d 
% ) /9 
i 9) 
> N SEB 
N 
y = /7 
= = /é 
= = 
= 5 
= Jt 
13 
/2 
YW 
/O 
3 
8 





Fig. 5.—Peat-profile traverse along the Miami canal, showing bedrock topography and 
cross-sections through the Everglades from north to south. The locations of the peat 
profiles are given on the map in fig. 1. 


monize results and increase greatly the knowiedge of past vegetations 
and the growth of plants. Series of peat profiles furnish not only the 
best material for historical studies regarding the character of the 
ancient vegetation, but they serve also as a record for the study of 
changes in environment. The general profile studies of the Florida 
Everglades furnish independent evidence and confirm the same con- 
clusion. The position of peat layers above sea level at one locality 
with the position of similar layers at other localities identifies them as 
the record of the same period and conditions. The profiles record 
without doubt geologically recent changes in the water level and shore 
line of Lake Okeechobee. : 


MARCH 19, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 95 


LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF TYPE PEAT PROFILES 


It may at first thought appear undesirable to use the detailed 
field records available for representative type profiles. But in order 
that the reader may judge conclusions with a fuller knowledge of the 
nature of the evidence available, it is believed that the original data 
for at least three peat-profile soundings may be pertinent in connec- 
tion with later discussions of the origin and history of the Florida 
Everglades. 

A description is given, in the following, of the profile sections which 
were measured on the banks of the West Palm Beach Canal. The 
sequence of peat layers obtained along this canal affords as good a 
basis as any from the other main diagonal canals, of inferring the en- 
vironmental conditions which prevailed during the deposition of the 
chief layers of peat. 


1. Lake Okeechobee Area 


F-29-33. At the lake shore, 300 feet north of the U. 8S. Sugar Cane 
Breeding Station at Canal Point, northeast of the entrance to West 
Palm Beach Canal. Elevation of ground surface and water in the 
lake 15.5 feet and of bedrock 2.9 feet above sea level. 


1. Black, compact, sticky, wet sedimentary peat, sandy at the surface 
with thin band of shells (species of Planorbis and Physa) at 16 to 17 inches 
below the surface. Based upon sea level measurements the marly material 
appears to be identical with that in a profile sounding 2,000 feet from Lake 
Okeechobee, on the south side of the ridge of dune-like sand which borders 
the shore of the lake. The sedimentary material is finely divided, dense, and 
more or less colloidal between the 2 and 3-foot level below the surface; at the 
4-foot level are 6 to 8 inches of brown, fibrous, laminated, compressed sedge 
peat mottled with yellowish, flattened rootstocks from Pontederia and other 
herbaceous plants. Below this continues to the 54-foot level a very dark 
brown to black sticky sedimentary peat. 

2. Dark brown partly sedimentary and fibrous sedge peat, stringy from 
coarse rhizomes of Cladium and Scirpus; the material is reddish-brown, 
moist, fibrous-matted, and poorly decomposed sedge peat at the 7-foot level 
below the surface; it gives off a fairly strong odor of hydrogen sulphide. 
Marsh gas is escaping in slight amounts. 

Between the levels of 7 and 9 feet from the surface the layer shows two to 
three alternating bands of dark brown sedimentary-fibrous sedge peat fol- 
lowed by reddish-brown poorly decomposed saw-grass peat. The limits of 
the bands are indistinct. Below the 9-foot level the sedge peat is predomi- 
nantly reddish to yellow-brown, coarse, partly decomposed, matted to felty 
fibered and chiefly the network of roots of Cladium with culms of grass-like 
plants. The material is porous, spongy, and wet, and has a distinct odor of 
hydrogen sulphide. 


96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 


At the 12-foot level appears a grayish oozy shell and Chara marl with the 
remains of roots and rhizomes from sedges. The marl varies in purity and 
thickness; it becomes cream-colored toward the bottom and rests on bedrock 
of white limestone. 








MUM ~ 23 47 
TN A228 - 3.3 
Sawa “29 5 7 


onal 
~~. 


———3 
——— 
ae ——a 
_--. 
-_-— 
_— 
~ 


-— 
ate 
ee 
- 


—_-+-— to _-_ 
—_—_— ewe 
—_-— ime se 
~. 


eo 
~. 





Fig. 6.—Peat profiles in a traverse from west to east across the Everglades along the 
Bolles canal, showing the development of peat layers by marsh and aquatic groups of 
vegetation in response to changes of water level and shore lines. 

A. Miami canal to Hillsboro canal. 

B. Cross-State Road canal from Hillsboro canal to West Palm Beach canal. 

Location of sections shown on map of fig. 1. 


Essentially the same structural features were observed more typi- 
cally in the peat sections on Torry Island in Lake Okeechobee, and in 
belts of different width bordering the lake shore at the Hillsboro, 
North New River, and Miami canals. The Okeechobee peat profiles 
are a typically two-layered series. 


MARCH 19, 1930 §DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 97 


2. Upper Everglades Area 


F-20-13. Opposite Lateral A, about 10 miles southeast of Lake 
Okeechobee and 50 feet west of West Palm Beach Canal on Conners 
highway. The section was first measured in 1920 when saw-grass 
vegetation and a high water table extended on all sides to the horizon 
line, relieved in a few places by clumps of low shrubs. The surface 
elevation at present is 15.10 feet, lower by 11 to 13 inches than 
formerly, due partly to fires and drainage. The bedrock stands at 
7.3 feet and the water level in the canal is at 12.85 feet above sea level. 
The record below refers to the field notes of 1920. 


1. Dark brown, wet, fibrous matted sedge peat, darkened by fires in the 
upper two inches, ‘contains charred debris; scattered over the surface are thin 
lenses of small pond snails, plants of Chara sp., and small calcareous pellets 
of blue-green algae. This is followed by brown fibrous crumbly saw-grass 
peat, mottled with dark-brown, finely-divided debris; between the 12 and 18- 
inch level below the surface the sedge peat is coarser, ‘reddish to yellow-brown 
and more firmly matted. 

2. Blackish-brown sedimentary-fibrous peat approximately 8 to 10 inches 
in thickness; dense, sticky, plastic and rather impermeable at the lower level, 
the fibrous components are more abundant at the limits of the layer. 

3. Reddish-brown, felty-fibrous, matted sedge peat from about 38 to 50 
inches below the surface; the material is firm, tough-fibered and has a moder- 
ately strong odor of hydrogen sulphide; at depths of 50 to 74 inches occur al- 
ternating bands of dark-colored sedimentary and fibrous mixtures followed by 
reddish to yellowish-brown, poorly decomposed, felty-fibrous sedge peat; 
the limits of the bands are indistinct and the upper one appears to separate 
into two thinner bands. This is followed by reddish to yellowish-brown 
fibrous moist saw-grass peat, spongy, poorly decomposed, odorous, in a 
compressed condition at the lower level; contains spicules of fresh-water 
sponges at the bottom and rootstocks of water-arum with needle-like raphides. 
Odor of hydrogen sulphide fairly strong below. At depth of 96 to 102 inches 
is found a grayish-white soft marl with rootlets of sedges, oozelike on bedrock. 


The individual measurements, which were made in dugout pits and 
excavations along the main canals in addition to the soundings with 
the peat sampling device, show excellent agreement with each other. 
The Everglades series of profiles is distributed over a very large por- 
tion of the interior. The peat profiles are uniformly three-layered. 


3. Marginal Area of the Upper Everglades 


F-29-43. Approximately 22 miles southeast of Lake Okeechobee, 
along West Palm Beach canal, and 150 feet from north side of highway. 
Large areas in this neighborhood have been burned over severely. 
It was formerly a border zone of shrubs such as wax myrtle, swamp 
bay, magnolia, willow and a Baccharis. Wooded islands or hammocks 


98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 


of cypress (Taxodium distichum) occur from 2 to 4 miles farther east, 
invading the saw-grass. Surface elevation 15.1 feet, bedrock elevation 
8.1 feet above sea level. Water level in canal at 11.49 feet. © 


1. Thin horizon of charred granular debris, chiefly from saw-grass peat, 
with yellow ash. Below it the plant remains consist of poorly decomposed 
brown, coarse-fibered roots and rhizomes from saw-grass and unidentifiable 
grasses and sedges. The material is very compact and firm near the surface 
but porous, moist, and felty at the lower level. Toward the bottom, about 36 
to 60 inches below the surface, the layer shows a scattered admixture of her- 
baceous plant remains and includes lenses of sand probably of windblown 
origin. Elongated veins contain black finely divided material, and rest on 





ZA 






S 


W 







ZO 





bs . 





9 
8 
7 
S 61 

Fig. 7.—Peat profiles of belts extending from sand bars, bordering the margins of the 
Everglades, toward the Miami canal, and showing variations in the sequence of peat 


layers near the eastern and western end of the drainage canals. Locations of profile 
sections are indicated on the map of fig. 1. 


gray sand with rootlets of sedges at the contact; the underlying sand rests on 
bedrock of porous limestone. 

The peat profiles of the Ridge series are typically one-layered units, 
relatively young, and not of very extensive occurrence. They are 
abundantly distributed over the eastern and western border of the 
Everglades and occur also in some of the sedge marshes of the east and 
west coast. 


PHYSICAL CONDITIONS DURING THE FORMATION OF THE EVERGLADES 


From the sequence of the peat layers in the profile sections described 
above it is not difficult to reconstruct the history of the “Upper” 
Everglades. 


MARCH 19, 19830 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 99 


It may be inferred from the conditions summarized by Sanford 
(13) that the lowest coastal plain, the Pensacola terrace within which 
the Everglades are included, was formed during comparatively recent 
Pleistocene time. Following an uplift of the mainland, the Kissim- 
mee River and its tributaries flowed southeastward through a broad 
flat valley cut mainly in the bedrock of limestone. It was during this 
period of erosion that the major features of the present rock-floor 
configuration with its irregular and jagged ridges, deep fissures, hol- 
lows, and scattered Keys were produced. Hills of sand were deposited, 
probably by a southward drift along the outcrop of bedrock around the 
border of the Everglades, and widespread beach sands, driven inland 
through the central part of the plain, assumed their present form. 
Concerning the geographic extent of the emergence, which may have 
been intermittent, there is still some doubt. The details that connect 
the geographic character of the country with its Pleistocene geology 
and with other natural features, are emphasized in the publications of 
the Federal Government (2, 7, 8), and the reports of the Florida State 
Geological Survey (10), the State Drainage District (6) and the State 
Agricultural Experiment Station (1). 

The events which are primarily responsible for the history of the 
“Upper” Everglades may be set forth as follows: 

Subsequent to the period of erosion a change came in the relative 
level of land and water. The change brought the surface of the bed- 
rock of the Everglades to or near its present level, and, where formerly 
there was an effective drainage, now shallow waters occupied small 
blocked depressions, hollows, and potholes in the rock. 

Aquatic vegetation began to invade the ponds and deeper axes of 
the drainage-valley bottoms where the bedrock sloped off more steeply. 
Reference to Forsaith’s (9) microscopic and comparative studies of 
the plant remains in the lakes and ponds of Florida shows the charac- 
ter of most of this type of vegetation. Submerged aquatics were 
represented by cosmopolitan but essentially northern species com- 
prising Vallisneria, Navas, Potamogeton, Utricularia and others; the 
floating aquatics included Nymphaea, and possibly Pistia and Piaropus, 
with detached masses of Scirpus scattered along the shores. - Large 
mats of Chara and blue-green algae together with numerous water 
snails and bivalves which fed on submerged roots and stems, yielded 
gray limey oozes and shell marl. 

Bordering them, a fairly uniform saw-grass marsh, very much as to- 
day, with gras8es, sedges, ferns, and herbaceous semi-aquatics having 


100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 


fleshy rcotstocks, slowly encroached upon the exposed rocky floor. 
Many northern species, both of plants and animals, had extended their 
range southward to this region or were represented in the sedge marsh 
by varieties which take the place of northern types. They spread 
over sands and muddy oozes, and covered wide expanses of bedrock 
including large areas now occupied by the present Lake Okeechobee. 





Fig. 8.—Upper portion of a profile section in a lateral canal showing on the face of the 
bank a surface horizon of saw-grass muck (the residue derived from decomposition of 
saw-grass peat) and a dark band of sedimentary-fibrous sedge peat between layers of 
brown fibrous saw-grass peat. Photographed by R. V. Allison, March 29, 1929. 


Brown fibrous sedge peat, spongy and watersoaked, formed a continu- 
ous layer over the limestone. The fact that no true sedimentary layer 
of peat is discovered at the bottom of most of the soundings is sufficient 
proof that at no time during this early period of peat formation did the 
general water level occupy a high elevation or was it rising rapidly 
enough to destroy the growth of the saw-grass and initiate the accumu- 
lation of a different type of peat on the rock floor of the Everglades. 


MARCH 19, 1930 | DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 101 


The effect of sand blown from dunes upon the marsh is shown in the 
extremely sandy peat material encountered in those soundings which 
are nearest the peat-covered dunes and bars. 

That the rock floor of this region was not occupied at first by an 
inland sea or body of open water as Matson (13) and Harshberger (11) 
contend, is evidenced by F-29-33 which recapitulates the general 
history of Ritta and Torry islands in that lake (3). The profiles in 
Figs. 2 to 7 also present features incompatible with the interpretation 
of them as products of a basin-like depression or of the filling up of an 
inland lake; they are too strongly suggestive of their autochthonous 
origin. The east-west profiles along the Bolles Canal and its extension 
eastward to the West Palm Beach Canal (Fig. 6A and 6B) serve as a 
useful check since in places they cross certain of the significant profiles 
of the main diagonal canals and confirm the developmental features 
shown on the northwest-southeast series of transects. The origin of 
Lake Okeechobee did not take place until a later period. It came into 
existence probably through springs or the effects of subterranean 
drainage and solution. The dense growth of sedges and their matted 
network of roots and rhizomes held back the water of heavy rainfalls 
and at first a chain of narrow lakes was probably ponded off between 
Kreamer and Ritta islands (Fig. 1). The exact position of the original 
series of lakes between the islands is not yet known. On the north 
side of Lake Okeechobee floodwaters from the mouth of the Kissim- 
mee River carried in suspension mineral material and deposited silt 
and sand over the bedrock bottom. ‘This deposition may have pro- 
ceeded for a considerable length of time, but the mineral sediments do 
not appear to be very thick. In contrast to this the evidence col- 
lected from profile soundings on the south side of the lake and in the 
Everglades proper indicates the presence of a basal layer of fibrous 
sedge peat. Minor overflows occurred from time to time, causing the 
water to encroach over the saw-grass marsh of that period and to per- 
sist for moderately long intervals. The admixtures of sedimentary 
peat, aquatic in origin, found embedded in the brown fibrous sedge 
peat at various levels, obviously are equivalent to the amount and 
length of overflow submergence. LHspecially at depths represented 
by tide elevations of 7 and 11 feet above sea level (Fig. 2), quantities 
of sedimentary material embedded in poorly decomposed sedge peat, 
differing in morphological characteristics from plant remains above 
and below these levels, must be credited to the agency of fluctuating 
water levels. The formation and deposition of both organic and silty 


102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 


material at the higher levels are proof of the existence of initial shore 
lines of a temporary lake, and an indication that a change to higher 
water levels had affected the region. 

Subsequent to the minor overflows, and as the water level fell, saw- 
grass vegetation again advanced northward beyond the present shore 
line of Lake Okeechobee. The plants continued to build up an accu- 
mulation of sedge peat, holding water to surface level by capillarity. 
In addition to the saw grass, Cladiwm effusum (Mariscus jamaicensis), 
the most common component of the fibrous peat layer, the plant re- 
mains denote the presence of species of Rhynchospora, Panicum, Andro- 
pogon, ferns such as Osmunda regalis, Acrosticum sp., and herbaceous 
plants as elements of the ancient marsh community. The only species 
found as seemingly pure bands of peat are Peltandra with Sagittaria 
and Pontederia which occupied ancient lagoons and sloughs. The 
water appears to have oozed slowly southward, on the east side toward 
the southeast and on the west side toward the southwest. 

The most extensive submergence by overflow, greatest in amount 
of sedimentary peat deposition and bringing the layer farthest out 
over the interior of the Everglades region, occurred later. All the 
measurements strongly affirm the interpretation that a rapid change due 
to the release of large masses of water marks the period when the accu- 
mulation of fibrous sedge peat had reached elevations between 12 and 
13 feet above sea level. In its inundated condition the region was 
covered with water, probably to a foot or more in depth, fluctuating in 
level from time to time but enduring for a relatively long period. Both 
the upper and lower edges of the sedimentary peat of that time are 
rather sharply demarked, and the continuity of the layer is traceable 
the entire distance from Kreamer Island in Lake Okeechobee to a line 
north of the Tamiami Trail, between Miami and the west coast, where 
the layer has the form of thin projecting lobes. A preliminary study 
of the plant remains seems to indicate a general and great change in 
surface vegetation. 

The whole aspect of the peat profiles is such as to justify the assump- 
tion of fluctuating and long-standing high water conditions. But the 
factors are yet to be determined that caused the water level to rise and 
stand. The problem is exceedingly complex since some of the factors 
such as bedrock topography, rainfall, evaporation, run-off, and perco- 
lation in the Everglades are not well understood. The underground 
water supply through porous or probably cavernous limestone is also 
an unknown and vitally important factor which will require study and 
observation. 


MARCH 19, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 103 


When the waters again fell and withdrew to a lower level, the present 
Lake Okeechobee came into existence. Lowering of the water table 
exposed a narrow zone of sedimentary mud flats on the south shore of 
the lake, and was accompanied by the rapid invasion of deciduous 
broad-leaved trees and shrubs. A dense growth of custard apple 
trees (Anona glabra) became dominant and formed a forest in which 
other tree-like vegetation was scant. Many of the older trees had 
enlarged bases induced by the influence. of submergence in water. 
The location and width of the ‘‘custard-apple belt,’’ previous to its 
destruction coincident with drainage and cultural operations, are 
shown on the phytogeographic map published by Harshberger (11). 

A comparison of the peat profiles in the “‘custard-apple belt’’ between 
the shore of the Lake and the interior of the Everglades suggests more 
differences than correspondences in the upper and recent layer of peat. 
The disagreement, however, is essentially due to fluctuation in water 
level. Woody peat is lacking entirely. Readvances of the shore line 
are marked by readvances in aquatic vegetation and corresponding 
deposition of sedimentary peat; periods, short in duration, of lower 
water supply are correlated by the development of saw-grass vegeta- 
tion and herbaceous plants which were favored and pushed forward 
over the exposed mudflats. Some of the bands of shell marl below 
laminated, platy, yellowish-brown, fibrous peat derived from Pon- 
tederia and semiaquatic members of the Naiadales and Arales surely 
record a wide re-entrance of saw-grass vegetation over sedimentary 
peat, and a corresponding drainage of the lake and of the Everglades. 
The extent and the number of oscillations in water level seem to have 
been small, for the bands are disturbed and alternate irregularly at 
several localities. Although thin layers of fibrous and herbaceous 
sedge peat extend beyond the present lake margin, they have only 
moderate thickness and indicate effects of an unstable shore line. This 
supposition is strongly supported also by the fact that in the interior 
of the Everglades and in the bays of Lake Okeechobee the correspond- 
ing layers of sedge peat record more uniform conditions. As already 
noted in another connection (4) they suggest that during the last few 
thousand years there has been no major differential submergence and 
no appreciable change in the relative positions of water level. The 
evidence indicates that custard-apple hammocks established them- 
selves only recently upon the mud flats along Lake Okeechobee, and 
the record of the peat profiles leads toward the conclusion of an essen- 
tially stable coastal plain in historic time. 


104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 


A ridge of fine silicious sand occupies the northeast and east shores 
of Lake Okeechobee. The sand ridge at Canal Point is about six feet 
high, varies in width from about 25 to 200 feet and rests on sedimen- 
tary peat along the entire southeastern shore of the lake. Prior to 
drainage operations it was clothed with bald cypress (Taxodium disti- 
chum), maple (Acer carolinianum), ash (Fraxinus caroliniana), holly 
(Ilex cassine), strangling fig (Ficus aurea), palmetto (Sabal palmetto), 
many shrubs, and herbaceous undergrowth; the stand was almost im- 
penetrable in many places. These low dune-like ridges and mounds 
of sand are not directly related to the present shore line, although 
they occur near the shore of Lake Okeechobee and are not found in- 
land on the saw-grass peat of the Everglades. From their position 
they may be in part the work of winds and in part due to wave action, 
particularly southward-setting currents; they were probably formed 
more or less recently, but at a time when water level conditions favored 
sand drift. 

The present vegetation of the Everglades has been described in great 
detail by Harshberger (11). Consultation of the phytogeographic map 
which accompanies his monograph will show the limits of the saw-grass 
vegetation and diverse plant communities, but not of the actual accu- 
mulation of saw-grass peat. Harper (10) has listed the constituent 
plants of the principal types of vegetation and has given many sources 
of information in his bibliography. To complete the picture it is 
necessary to keep in mind that broad-leaved shrubs and trees belong- 
ing to types essentially southern in range and characteristic of the 
belt of cypress-tupelo-red gum swamps have been invading the 
Everglades only recently. As yet layers of woody peat derived from 
them are lacking. In the interior of the Everglades are scattered 
hammocks or islands of hardwood trees and shrubs with vines, ferns, 
and epiphytes. Where fires do not suppress it, this group of vegeta- 
tion is displacing the saw-grass more or less rapidly. In a not-distant 
future hammock vegetation will be typical where the saw-grass is still 
in evidence. 


CONCLUSIONS AND NEW PROBLEMS 


In the present paper the primary object has been to treat in a pre- 
liminary fashion the general origin and nature of the upper portion of 
that large stretch of sedge moor, the Everglades of Florida, one of the 
largest subtropical peat areas in the world, extending from Lake Okee- 
chobee to the Gulf of Mexico. 


MARCH 19, 1930 | DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 105 


Three distinct but genetically related series of peat profiles are 
pointed out. (1) the area of profiles in and bordering Lake Okee- 
chobee; (2) the area of profiles in the main interior portion of the Ever- 
glades; (3) the area of peat profiles bordering the highland. ‘The general 
relations of these three series of profiles to each other are shown dia- 
grammatically in Figs. 2 to 7. The morphological features and bo- 
tanical composition which characterize representative soundings of 
each of these series of profiles have been described and the effects of 
oscillations of water level upon the stratigraphic origin and form of the 
profiles were considered. It is concluded that the salient features of 
the Everglades do not find an explanation in the geologic structure, or 
in the configuration of the bedrock as an inland lake; the peat profiles 
show a remarkable dependence upon inundations and oscillations of 
water level and corresponding changes in shore line during a time rela- 
tively recent. The Upper Everglades of Florida present the aspects 
of a eutrophic sedge moor characterized by series of one-, two-, and 
three-layered telmatogenic profiles. 

A number of special problems possess more than ordinary interest. 
It is in the wide bearing not only on practical agriculture but also on 
fields of science, particularly Pleistocene geology, geography, botany, 
climatology and even archaeology that their scientific value and im- 
portance are to be found. 

If a sufficient number of profile measurements can be secured to- 
gether with their elevations above sea level, the successive positions 
of ancient Lake Okeechobee, the several stages and forms of the re- 
ceding and advancing shore line can be mapped. It is hoped that such 
a valuable list of accurate measurements as that obtained through the 
cooperation with the Everglades State Drainage office will be made 
for a large number of points along lines of traverse in an east-west and 
north-south direction. They have a high scientific and practical 
value. There is a scarcity of trustworthy data for solving certain 
difficult problems in regional peat investigations, or on which to base 
reliable estimates of the rate and amount of shrinkage and decomposi- 
tion of peat deposits under different climatic conditions and agricultural 
practices. | 

A closer treatment requires also biochemical analyses of the profile 
series, including the mechanical and chemical character of both the 
shore peat (littoral gyttja) and lake peat (limnic gyttja) as geographical 
types of sedimentary peat. Of considerable interest should be de- 
tailed quantitative and stratigraphic studies of pollen and other plant 
remains in the succession of peat layers. 


106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 


It would be pertinent also to inquire into the causes of the inunda- 
tions to which the region has been subject and which determined the 
primary characteristics of the Everglades peat soils. Determination 
of the extent, number, and duration of the overflows and changes in 
water level, the amount of fall and rise recorded by the peat profiles, 
should be of great interest in problems connected with the control of 
intermittent, impounded surface waters. The factors that caused 
longstanding high-water-level conditions and changes in the shore of 
Lake Okeechobee are yet to be determined. The theory of relatively 
recent oscillations of the coast, involving both emergence and subsid- 
ence of the Floridian mainland, is apparently disproved by the 
character of the Everglades peat layers and the absence of tidal-marsh 
peat. 

An estimate of the length of time required for the formation of this 
interesting peat region with its flooded and ponded lake and shifting, 
complicated shore lines should be another aim in studies like this, 
especially if correlated with contemporaneous periods in the ice retreat 
in North America. Correlation tables already published (8) are only 
a beginning of the task of constructing a continuous record. The 
complexity and difficulty of the whole problem of possible changes of 
level requires contributions from different aspects, and the light of 
fuller knowledge than now at our command. Particular attention 
should be given to comparisons with northern coastal regions serving 
to clarify the relationship between stratigraphic features and environ- 
mental changes. 

Studies to correlate the effects of drainage and of special chemical 
salts, applied to promote the growth of crops, are under way on fields 
representing each profile series.- 


REFERENCES 


(1) Auuison, R. V., Bryan, O. C., and Hunter, J. H. The stimulation of plant re- 
sponse on the raw peat soils of the Florida Everglades through the use of copper sul- 
phate and other chemicals. Univ. Florida Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 190. 1927. 

(2) Batpwin, M. and Hawker, H.W. Soil Survey of the Fort Lauderdale area, Florida. 
Field Operations, U. S. Bureau of Soils, 1919. 

(3) Dacunowsk1, A. P. The correlation of time units and climatic changes in peat de- 
posits of the United States and Europe. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 8: 225-231. 1922. 

(4) Dacanowsk1-StToxgs, A. P., and Atuison, R. V. A preliminary note on blue-green 
algal marl in southern Florida in relation to the problem of coastal subsidence. 
This JouRNAL 18: 476-480. 1928. 

(5) Dacunowski-Stoxss, A. P. The botanical composition and morphological features 
of ‘“‘highmoor’’ peat profiles in Maine. Soil Sci. 27: 379-388. 1929. 

(6) Extiot, F. C. Bienn. Rept. Everglades Drainage District, Tallahassee, Florida. 
1925-1926. 


MARCH 19, 1930 SHOEMAKER: NEW TALITRIDAE 107 


(7) Everglades of Florida. U.S. Senate Doc. 89, 62nd Congress, 1st Session, Washing- 
ten. DCs. Ott: 

(8) Florida Everglades: U.S. Senate Doc. 379, 63d Congress, 2nd Session, Washington, 
D.C. 1914. 

(9) Forsaitu, C. C. Report on some allocthonous peat deposite of Florida. Bot. Gaz. 
62: 32-52, 1916, 63: 190-208. 1917. 

(10) Harper, R. M. Natural resources of Southern Florida. Eighteenth Ann. Rep. 
Fla. State Geol. Survey, 27-206. 1927. 

(11) Harsupercer, J. W. The vegetation of South Florida, south of 27°30’ north, exclu- 
sive of the Florida Keys. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. 7: 49-189. 1914. 

(12) Lunpauist, G. Methoden zur Untersuchung der Entwicklungsgeschichte der 
Seen. Abderhalden’s Handbuch der biologischen Arbeitsmethoden. Abt. 
9, T. 2, (fig. 173), 427-462. 1925. 

(13) Matson, G. C., and Sanrorp, S., Geology and ground waters of Florida. U.S. 
Geol. Survey, Water Supply Paper 319. 1913. 


ZOOLOGY.—Descriptions of two new amphipod crustaceans (Tali- 
tridae) from the United States.1 CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER, 
United States National Museum. (Communicated by Mary 
J. RATHBUN.) 


While sorting a small collection of crustacea which was sent to the 
U. 8. National Museum for identification by the U. 8. Biological Sur- 
vey in May, 1929, I noticed a species of Orchestia which was new to 
science. The specimens, one male and two females, were collected by 
Mr. F. M. Uhler, and in answer to my inquiry as to the exact locality, 
he says in his letter, ‘“The specimens were taken on the north side of a 
small lake or pond located on the northwest side of Lake Monroe, and 
were found under a board on a rather sandy gently sloping margin, 
2—4 yards from the water’s edge. This spot apparently is in Volusia 
County, Florida, very close to the Seminole County line, and Sanford 
is the nearest town of any importance. This pond is located about 
1-14 miles from the bridge across the outlet of Lake Monroe, and is 
separated from the lake only by a strip of semi-dry marsh covered with 
vegetation. The water of the pond is supplied by a large sulphur 
spring, a sulphurous artesian well, and by high water from the main 
body of Lake Monroe. Lake Monroe is merely a broadened portion of 
the St. Johns’ River, and although the water apparently is fresh, it 
contains such marine vertebrates as the sting ray (Dasyatis sabina) 
which frequently enters fresh water.” 

I have designated this new species Orchestia uhleri in honor of its 
discoverer. 


1 Received February 7, 1930. 


108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 


In 1905, Dr. James E. Benedict took some specimens of an Orches- 
tordea at Pacific Grove, California, which upon examination proved to 
be a new species. Mr. E. M. Chase collected further examples of this 
species on April 27, 1918 at Anaheim Bay, Seal Beach, California. Dr. 
Waldo L. Schmitt, during his investigations of spiny lobsters, procured 
additional material from kelp hold-fasts on the beach at La Jolla, 
California. Mr. Frank F. Gander has presented the National Museum 
with specimens which he took in 1927 at San Diego, California. Mr. 
Gander states that he took this species both in the littoral marine and 
at Balboa Park, which affords another example of a member of the 
family Talvtridae extending from the coast to a considerable distance 
inland. 

This species I have named Orchestoidea benedictt in honor of its 
discoverer. 


Orchestia uhleri, n. sp. 


Figures 1 and 2 


Type-locality—Near Lake Monroe, Volusia County, Florida, collected by 
F. M. Uhler, March 22, 1928; 1 male holotype (Cat. No. 62956, U.S. N. M.). 
Male.—Kyes black, round, and of moderate size. Antenna 1 extending 
slightly beyond the fourth joint of antenna 2, flagellum composed of four 
joints and slightly longer than peduncle. Antenna 2 very nearly as long as 
the head and first four body segments, fourth joint of peduncle about three- 
fourths the length of fifth, flagellum composed of thirteen joints and as long 
as the fourth and fifth joints of peduncle combined. Mandible, cutting 
edge rather narrow and oblique and armed with two large and three smaller 
teeth, secondary plate well developed, two stout plumose spines and one or 
two smaller ones in spine-row, molar large and strong, bearing many trans- 
verse ridges on its slightly concave surface, and having at its base near the 
spine-row a dense brush of plumose setae. Maxilla 1, inner plate long and 
narrow and bearing on its distal end three plumose spines, outer plate bearing 
9 serrate spine-teeth, palp very small with second joint about one-third the 
length of first. Maxilla 2, inner plate very nearly as long as outer and 
bearing on its obliquely truncated extremity many plumose spines and setae, 
outer plate evenly rounded distally and bearing many curved spines. Maxil- 
lipeds, inner plates reaching very nearly to the end of the first joint of palp, 
broadened distally, and bearing four short spine-teeth on their truncated 
ends, outer plates short and broad, reaching about one-third the distance 
along the second joint of palp, palp very short and broad, all the joints being 
wider than long. Lower-lip about normal. Gnathopod 1, side-plate very 
slightly concave in front and evenly rounded below, fourth joint with shallow 
lobe on lower margin, fifth with prominent lobe on lower margin, sixth joint 
about two-thirds the length of fifth, lower margin produced distally into a 
soft tumid lobe, palm short, transverse and armed with a row of long slender 
spines, seventh joint as long as palm, bearing about one-third the distance 
from the apex several slender setae, and armed on inner edge with three short 
blunt spines. Gnathopod 2 large and powerful, second joint four-fifths as 


MARCH 19, 1930 SHOEMAKER: NEW TALITRIDAE 109 





Fig. 1.—Orchestia uhleri, new species. Male, a, Entire animal. 6, Right mandible. 
c, Maxilla 1. d, Maxilla 2. e, Maxillipeds. jf, Maxilliped with palp flattened out to 
show entire width of joints. g, Lower lip. h, Gnathopod 1. 7, End of sixth joint and 
seventh joint of gnathopod 2, enlarged. 


110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 


long as sixth, produced at the lower anterior corner into a rounding lobe, third 
joint produced anteriorly into a prominent rounding lobe, sixth joint over half 
as wide as long, narrowing distally, with upper margin convex, and the entire 
lower margin which is about straight forming the palm, two rounding protu- 
berances on palm adjacent to the hinge of seventh joint, palm armed on distal 
two-thirds with short spines which are more thickly clustered on the protuber- 
ances, seventh joint very long and curving inward toward the end, greatly 
overlapping palm and when closed against palm the apex extending nearly to 
the upper margin of fourth joint, a large tooth or protuberance on inner sur- 
face fitting between those of the palm. Peraeopods 1 and 2 about normal 
except that the seventh joints are rather small. Peraeopods 3 to 5 increas- 
ing consecutively in length and having all joints normally expanded. Uropod 
1 projecting farther backward than uropod 2 which projects considerably 
farther than uropod 3. Uropod 1 with peduncle slightly longer than the rami 
which are very nearly equal in length. Uropod 2 with peduncle equal in 
length to outer ramus which is a little shorter than the inner. Uropod 3 with 
peduncle and ramus nearly equal in length, ramus about three times longer 
than wide, bearing four long spines on outer margin and a cluster of three 
spines on apex. Telson a little longer than wide, with the slightly concave sides 
converging toward the apex which is divided into two shallow lobes by a 
slight central notch, two long spines on each lateral margin, two extending 
backward from each lobe, and two shorter spines on upper surface near apex. 


Length.— Male, 14.5 mm.; female, smaller. 


Gnathopod 1 of the female is very distinctly subchelate, the palm being 
slightly oblique and armed near the defining angle with a row of five or six 
long slender spines, and the seventh joint bearing near its apex several setae 
and on inside margin two short blunt spines. Gnathopod 2 of female with 
second joint moderately expanded, sixth joint produced considerably beyond 
the very short seventh joint into an evenly rounded soft tumid lobe. 

Although the genus Orchestia is mostly confined to marine beaches, a 
number of its members, in widely separated parts of the earth, are known to 
occur in moist earth and amongst decaying vegetation, at considerable dis- 
tances from the coast and at times at elevations of 2000 to 3000 feet. Fritz 
Miller described a species (O. darwiniz) from Brazil, of which he says, ‘“The 
animal lives in marshy places in the vicinity of the sea, under decaying 
leaves, in the loose earth which the marsh crabs throw up around the en- 
trance to their burrows, and even under dry cow dung and horse dung. If 
this species removes to a greater distance from the shore than the majority of 
its congeners, its male differs still more from all known species by the powerful 
chelae of the second pair of feet.’””’ The present record, I believe, is the first 
of the occurrence of this genus in North America at any locality removed from 
the coast, Lake Monroe being twenty miles from the nearest point on the east 
coast of Florida and about 120 miles from the sea by way of the St. Johns 
River. 


MARCH 19, 1930 SHOEMAKER: NEW TALITRIDAE 111 





Fig. 2.—Orchestia uhleri, new species. a, Gnathopod 1, female. 6, Gnathopod 2, 
female. c, Palm of sixth joint and seventh joint of gnathopod 2 of male, enlarged. d, 
Right mandible, enlarged. e, Telson and third uropods, male. 


112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 


Orchestoidea benedicti, n. sp. 
Figure 3 


Type-locality—San Diego, California (littoral marine), collected by Frank 
F. Gander, April, 1927; 1 male holotype (Cat. No. 62962, U.S.N.M.). 

Male.—Head about as long as first thoracic segment, eye of medium size, 
very nearly circular, black and composed of many small elements. Antenna 
1 scarcely reaching to the middle of fourth joint of antenna 2, flagellum half the 
length of peduncle and composed of four joints the last of which is very small. 
Antenna 2 very short and stout, fourth joint about twice as long as wide, 
fifth joint twice as long as fourth and only four times as long as wide, flagel- 
lum a little over half as long as fifth peduncular joint, first four joints of 
flagellum coalesced forming one long joint about equal in length to the re- 
maining seven. Mandible, cutting edge with three large stout teeth and 
three or four smaller ones, secondary plate well-developed, four plumose 
spines, two of which are larger than the others, in spine-row, molar well- 
developed, and bearing a brush of plumose setae at base. Maxilla 1, inner 
plate long and slender and bearing two plumose spines on apex, outer plate 
longer than inner and bearing nine serrate spine-teeth on the obliquely trun- 
cated end, palp very small consisting of a slender basal joint and a very 
minute terminal joint. Maxilla 2, inner plate narrower and slightly shorter 
than outer, distal end very obliquely truncated and bearing a long plumose 
seta at lower obtuse angle, outer plate evenly rounded distally and armed 
with many long curved spines. Maxillipeds, inner plates long and slender, | 
reaching to or a little beyond the middle of the outer plate, and armed on the 
transversely truncated end with three short spine-teeth and row of plumose 
setae, outer plate small and short, reaching to about the middle of the second 
joint of palp, the rounding apex bearing several plumose setae, and the inner 
edge bearing a row of closely set short spines, palm short and broad, the inner 
distal angle of second joint produced into a broad lobe, lower lip with lateral 
lobes short and broad. Gnathopod 1 about normal, fifth joint bearing on 
lower margin a short rounding lobe, sixth joint bearing at the lower posterior 
angle a low soft lobe which gives the joint the appearance of having a very 
short palm. Gnathopod 2, sixth joint very large and powerful and roughly 
oval in outline, the oblique palm consisting of a large spinose tooth and a 
deep depression adjacent to the hinge of the seventh joint, the palm is de- 
fined by a low rounding angle and a short stout spine, the oblique surface 
of the large tooth bears several additional stout spines some of which project 
forward on either side of the seventh joint when it is closed against the palm, 
seventh joint very stout and strongly curved and slightly overlapping palm, 
inner edge bearing a row of very short spinules. Peraeopod 1 much longer 
than 2. Peraeopod 3 about equal in length to 2, second joint broadly ex- 
panded. Peraeopods 4 and 5 subequal in length, second joint of 5 more 
widely expanded than that of 4. Abdominal segments 1-3 with lower pos- 
terior corners slightly produced into short acute points. Uropod 1 extending 
farther back than 2 which is farther produced than 3. Uropod 1, peduncle 
longer than the rami, the outer of which is the longer, peduncle and rami 
bearing spines on all their edges. Uropod 2, peduncle equal in length to 
outer ramus which is slightly shorter than inner, the edges of both peduncle 
and rami bearing spines, those of the peduncle being longer than the rest. 
Uropod 3, peduncle shorter than ramus. Telson about as wide as long, the 
sides converging to a narrowly rounded apex, several spines on the upper sur- 
face and a cluster on the rounding apex. 


MARCH 19, 1930 SHOEMAKER: NEW TALITRIDAE 113 





77 


Fig. 3.—Orchestoidea benedicti, new species. Male, a, Entire animal. 06, Antenna l. 
c, End of fifth joint and flagellum of antenna 2. d, Right mandible. e, Maxillal. f, 
Maxilla 2. g, Maxillipeds. h, Lower lip. 7, End of sixth joint and seventh joint of 
gnathopod 2, enlarged. j, Gnathopod1, female. k, Gnathopod 2, female. J, Uropod 3. 
n, Telson and third uropods from above. 


114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 


Length.—Male, 13 mm.; female, somewhat smaller. 

Material examined.— 

53 specimens; Pacific Grove, California, James E. Benedict, coll., June, 
1905. 

1 specimen; Entrance to Anaheim Bay, Seal Beach, California, E. M. 
Chase, coll., April 27, 1918. 

27 specimens; La Jolla, California, from kelp hold-fasts on beach, W. L. 
Schmitt, coll., August 17, 1918. 

9 specimens; San Diego, California (littoral marine), Frank F, Gander, coll., 
April, 1927. 

5 specimens; San Diego, California (Balboa Park), Frank F. Gander, coll., 
May, 1927. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


413TH MEETING 


The 413th regular meeting was held October 3d, 1929, in Room 43 of the 
National Museum. The president, Mr. J. E. Graf, presided. Mr. Roy E. 
CAMPBELL, Alhambra, California, and Mr. A. M. Vancz, Hyéres, France, 
were elected to membership. 

The Secretary-Treasurer, Mr. Ronwnmr, read a communication from Prof. 
EK. N. Cory, of College Park, Md., chairman of the Eastern branch of the 
American Association of Economic Entomologists, announcing a meeting of 
that organization in New York City beginning on November 21st at 9:30 A.M. 

The chair reported the death of Dr. FRANK HuRLBUT CHITTENDEN of the 
Bureau of Entomology on September 15th, 1929, in his 71st year, at his home 
in Washington, D.C. After a few remarks, by Dr. Howarp, dealing in a 
reminiscent way with his associations with the deceased, a committee, con- 
sisting of WHITE, QAUINTANCE, and Howarp, was appointed to recommend. 
action at the next meeting. 

Program: J. M. Atpricu: Recent entomological experiences in Europe. 
The speaker spent some three months in Europe the past summer. He 
studied the types of American muscoid flies in the British Museum, and the 
museums in Stockholm, Copenhagen and Paris. He also collected Diptera 
in Northern Sweden (Aare and Oestersund) for the purpose of getting material 
to compare with the northern flies of America, in order to get further informa- 
tion about the species common to the holarctic region. Lantern slides were 
shown to illustrate the life zones of northern Sweden. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Howarp. 

F, L. CAMPBELL: How do insects grow? 


414TH MEETING 


The 414th meeting was held November 7, 1929, in Room 48 of the National 
Museum. The President, Mr. J. E. Graf, presided. Mr. James I. HaMBLE- 
TON and Dr. J. W. Buutcer, both of the U. 8. Bureau of Entomology, were 
elected to membership. 

The following communication was read: 


MARCH 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 115 


“Your committee recommends that the following paragraph be inserted 
in the minutes of this meeting: 


“<The Entomological Society of Washington feels that the death of 
Dr. Frank Huruput CHITTENDEN has taken from us a devoted and 
accomplished entomologist whose long term of working years in Wash- 
ington has enriched entomology in its biologic, taxonomic and economic 
aspects; that we feel his loss deeply and that we sympathize sincerely 
with his surviving sister.’ 


“Your committee further recommends that it be empowered to prepare and 
publish in the Proceedings of the Society a short account of Doctor Chitten- 
den’s life and activities.”’ 

Signed: W. H. WHITE 
A. L. QUAINTANCE 
L. O. Howarp 

Program: R. E. SNoperass: How Insects Fly. 

Insect wings probably were developed from paranotal lobes. The oldest 
known insects were fully winged—some with flexor apparatus and some with- 
out. Wing muscles comprise the dorsal longitudinal muscles, vertical tergo- 
sternal muscles, pleural muscles, and the flexor muscles. Wing movements 
of flight consist of up-and-down movements, forward and rearward move- 
ments, and partial rotary movements. Up-and-down movements are pro- 
duced by the dorsal longitudinal and the tergo-sternal muscles, with strong 
depressor adjuncts in the posterior pleural muscles. Forward, rearward, 
and rotary movements are produced by the anterior and posterior pleural 
muscles. Movements by the flexion are produced by the flexor muscles; 
extension is produced by the anterior and posterior pleural muscles. Flight 
involves a driving and lifting force; both are produced by the wing movements 
which create an area of decreased air pressure before and above the insect 
(DEMOLL). Steering, sidewise and rearward flight, and hovering are func- 
tions controlled by the pleural muscles. Organs of equilibrium are not known 
in insects generally; a few species have organs that are possibly of a static 
function. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by McInpoo, Curriz, Mann, Howarp, and THONE. 

_ Atrequest of Dr.S. F. Buaxs, Recording Secretary of the Biological Society 
of Washington, a notice was read by the Recording Secretary of an address 
to be delivered by Dr. CHARLES WARDELL STILES on Some Recent Developments 
in Zoological Nomenclature at the next regular meeting of that Society to be 
held at the Cosmos Club on November 16. 

Remarks were made on invitation by a visitor, Father O. PirL, a mission- 
ary to China, who was introduced by Doctor Howarp, and who greeted our 
Society, expressed his pleasure at being with us, and spoke briefly of his recent 
travel contacts in this country and abroad. 

Mr. Rouwemnr recorded the recent discovery of the pink bollworm of cotton 
in the Salt River Valley of Arizona, and the amendment to the quarantine 
effective on October 31, including within the regulated area Pinal and Mari- 
copa Counties, Arizona. Specimens of this insect were collected in gin trash 
at two gins on October 24 and forwarded to Washington for final identification. 
Immediately on this discovery additional scouts were sent to the area and at 
this time specimens of the pest had been collected in ten different fields and in 
trash from four different gins. All points where infestations have been dis- 
covered are within a comparatively limited area of approximately five miles 


116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 


southwest of the towns of Mesa and Gilbert. In some fields approximately 
85% of the bolls were infested and within the general area in which the larvae 
had been found the infestation ranged from 5 to 85%. 

Mr. Rouwer also referred very briefly to the work done on the Mediter- 
ranean fruit fly and stated that no specimens of infested fruit had been dis- 
covered at any point within the State of Florida since 'August 27 nor had any - 
adults been taken in traps since August 14. The apparent absence of fruit 
fly is very encouraging. During the summer intensive scouting has been 
done throughout the State of Florida. In addition to the scouting done 
within this State the States within the cotton belt have been intensively 
scouted and intensive scouting has also been done in California and the south- 
western States. No infestations of the fruit fly have been discovered as the 
result of this work. 

Discussed by Wess, McINpoo, and THONE. 


415TH MEETING 


The 415th meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington was held 
December 5th, 1929, in Room 48 of the National Museum. The President, 
Mr. J. E. Grar presided. 

The first item of business was the annual election of officers of the Society 
for 1930. All of the following were then reelected: Preszdent, J. E. GRAF; 
First Vice President, A. C. Baxkmr; Second Vice President, F. C. BIsHopP; 
Recording Secretary, J. S. WADE; Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer, S. A. 
RouwWER; Editor, W. R. Wauton; Executive Committee, the officers and C. T. 
GREENE, A. N. CAUDELL, and T. E. SnypErR; Representing the Society as vice 
president of the Washington Academy of Sciences, A. G. BOVING. 

Remarks were made on invitation by the following visitors and non-resident 
members: Dr. C. C. GHosH, entomologist of the Agricultural College of 
Mandalay, Burma, India, greeted the Society and spoke appreciatively of his 
early personal contacts years ago with the officials of our Department of 
Agriculture and of the aid received from studies of its entomological publica- 
tions, of his previous associations with Dr. Howarp, and of his pleasure at 
opportunity of visiting Washington. He also spoke briefly of the official 
organization of Agriculture in India and of the character and scope of some of 
the activities now under way in that country. 

Dr. W. V. Krna, of the Malaria Mosquito Laboratory at Mound, Louisiana, 
also addressed the meeting, expressed his pleasure at being with us, and 
referred briefly to some of his recent work in the Philippines on mosquitoes 
and flies, specifically, an outbreak of considerable magnitude at Manila last 
year brought about through an accumulation of decaying algae along a lake 
shore near the City. He also described in a general way some work of the 
Philippine Health Service. 

Mr. A. F. Burgess, of the Gypsy and Brown Tail Moth Laboratory at 
Melrose Highlands, Mass., greeted the Society and referred humorously to 
some phases of the just completed election of our Society’s officers, gave some 
reminiscences of other meetings attended years ago, and dwelt appreciatively 
on the work accomplished and the publications issued by our Society. 

Program: F. W. Poos: Leafhopper injury to legumes. (Illustrated). 
The study of leafhopper injury to legumes was started in 1928 by the Division 
of Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology, in co- 
operation with the Division of Forage Crops, Bureau of Plant Industry, at 
Arlington Farm, Virginia, where plantings of the various varieties of forage 


MARCH 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY DE? 


crop legumes are maintained by the latter Division and where laboratory and 
greenhouse facilities are also furnished for these studies. ‘The work has been 
largely confined to the disease-like injury which is due to some intimate 
specific relationship other than that of purely mechanical punctures and 
depletion of plant food and water. About 30 species of leafhoppers, Ci- 
eadellidae, occur on forage crops in this section. Twenty of these species 
have been tested for the disease-like injury to date. Empoasca fabae and 
some of the new species of this genus are the only species in which no indi- 
viduals have been found that are free from the infectious principle. Occa- 
sionally individuals from two other genera of Cicadellidae have been found 
which apparently caused the disease-like injury similar to that caused by 
E. fabae. Theinterrelationship of these species, the various responses to their 
host plants, and the study of their comparative biology makes up a very 
complicated but interesting field of work. 

Observations on the injury and relative susceptibility of various varieties 
of alfalfa, red clover, sweet clover, white clover, cowpeas, soybeans, peanuts, 
and potatoes, have been made as well as on many other beans and clovers not 
mentioned above and on numerous other cultivated and wild hosts. The 
degree of susceptibility in relation to the amount and type of pubescence is 
being studied and gives promise of some very interesting results. 

The disease-like injury has not been found to be systemic. The infectious 
principle or toxicity has been found to be inherited through six generations 
with no apparent loss of virulence. The degree of injury to an individual 
plant is more or less directly proportional to the number of leafhoppers which 
are placed upon the plant. If the leafhopper’S are removed before the plant 
is too seriously injured, recovery follows. 

Studies on the loss in quality and yield of hay caused by EF. fabae to alfalfa 
planted during the spring of 1929 were made in cages one sq. rod in area and 
covered by tobacco cloth. The hay was carefully harvested, dried, and 
weighed and then submitted to the Bureau of Agricultural Economics for 
grading. All the hay taken from infested cages was graded No. 2 whereas 
all the hay taken from the uninfested cage, both cuttings, was graded No. 1. 
Based on the weights obtained and the average price for this hay in Kansas 
City during 1928 and 1929, the loss was 33%. 

Preliminary work indicates that control will be largely ecological in that a 
rearrangement of certain crops may be advisable. A better use of existing 
varieties and the further development of varieties which best lend themselves 
to the situation should have due consideration. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by BRIDWELL, GRAF, Kinc, Rohwer, Howarp, BaLpur, and 
EWING. 

Notes and exhibition of specimens: Dr. ALDRICH exhibited copies and dis- 
cussed briefly a number of recently issued scientific and other books, notably: 
The Witchery of Wasps, by Rutnenart; Instinct and Intelligence, by KING- 
ston; Handbook of the Dragonflies of North America, by NEEDHAM and 
Haywoop; A Manual of External Parasites, by Ew1ne; Principles of Systema- 
tic Entomology, by FrrrR1s; and An Orphan of Eternity, by HzrnricH. These 
remarks were discussed by Howarp. 

J. S. Wavn, Recording Secretary 


118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


997TH MEETING 


The 997th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on November 
23, 1929. 

Program: H. B. Brooxs, The sensitivity of a galvuanometer as a function 
of its resistance. Maxwell stated that for the maximum deflection of a gal- 
vanometer connected to an external circuit containing a given electromotive 
force, the galvanometer resistance should bear to the external resistance the 
ratio, diameter of bare wire (in the galvanometer coil) to its diameter over the 
insulation. Ayrton and Perry stated that the ratio of these resistances should 
be unity. Heaviside found that both statements were correct for the respec- 
tive assumptions, Maxwell having assumed a constant absolute thickness of 
insulation, Ayrton and Perry a thickness having a constant ratio to the di- 
ameter of the bare wire. The Ayrton and Perry theorem has become an 
established tradition. It appears, for example, in a 1928 textbook on electri- 
cal measurements, and in the current catalogue of a prominent instrument 
maker. An extension of the analysis of the previous writers shows that for 
each case the curve of relative sensitivity as a function of galvanometer-coil 
resistance has such an extremely flat maximum that one may largely depart 
from the traditional optimum condition with only small loss in sensitivity, 
and with a considerable gain in most cases because considerations of proper 
damping forbid the use of modern moving-coil galvanometers on an external 
circuit of resistance equal to that of the coil. Because of the extreme flat- 
ness of the maxima, galvanometer makers need to construct, and users need 
to purchase, galvanometers of relatively few values of coil resistance, in order 
acceptably to cover all but very unusual requirements. (Author’s Abstract.) 

Howarp 8S. Rappueye, Observers’ patterns. This paper constitutes a 
brief review of the material presented about a year and a half ago on Obser- 
vers’ Patterns, or the personal equations of observers engaged in the first- 
order leveling of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. In addition to the 
review of the first paper additional data were presented on the progress of the 
investigation since the first presentation. A piece of test apparatus was 
shown which was designed with the idea of compressing a “pattern test’’ 
into a sample of 100 separate estimations by having them distributed uni- 
formly throughout the range of observations but presented to the observer in 
a random order. In its present form this apparatus, while it provided some 
useful sidelights on the whole matter, failed to provide a proper test. Addi- 
tional work with it may possibly reveal the cause of the failure and make it, 
when properly modified, a useful adjunct to the test apparatus and program. 
A “1,000 test’”’ in which the readings are taken at random on four separate 
positions of rod and instrument but the readings in each group being scat- 
tered up and down the rod in an accidental manner, was reported upon and 
a sample tally sheet shown. It was noted that the groups of 250 observations 
in éach position exhibited the same general characteristics, which seems to 
further substantiate the belief that a sample of 1,000 to 1,500 observations 
taken at random is a large enough sample to bring out a characteristic pat- 
tern for an observer. A series of patterns were shown illustrating the beha- 
vior of an observer throughout a series of tests when the results of each pre- 
ceding test were known to him. Also patterns were shown illustrating the 
behavior of the same observer after he had taken the field on actual leveling. 


MARCH 19, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 119 


Another series of patterns illustrated the “shaking down” process of a new 
observer by exhibiting a gradual change in his pattern throughout the first 
half of a field season and a practically constant pattern or personal equation 
during the last half of the season. (Author’s Abstract.) 

Oscar 8. Apams, Recording Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


According to the Journal of Agricultural Research the tobacco plant shows 
specific symptoms of a deficiency of magnesium and of calcium in some light- 
sandy and sandy-loam soils. Fertilizers for such soils should contain small 
quantities of calcium and magnesium; 180 pounds of magnesium sulphate per 
acre in the drill or 500 to 1000 pounds of dolomitic limestone broadcast will 
effectively prevent symptoms of magnesium deficiency. 


JoHN C. REEp, recently appointed Senior Scientific Aid on the Geological 
Survey, is at present assisting the Chemical Laboratory in the determination 
of mineral specimens. In addition to such determinations made in the course 
of its regular work,the Survey identifies over 2000 specimens a year for the 
public. 


L. W. STEPHENSON has resumed his duties as Chief of the Section of Coastal 
Plain Investigations in the Geological Survey after a four-months furlough 
for field work in Venezuela. 


Miss JuLIA GARDNER, who has spent the winter in examining collections of 
Tertiary and Cretaceous fossils in foreign museums and in visiting outcrops 
of fossiliferous strata in England and Denmark, returned to Washington 
early in March. 


Dr. N. Ernest Dorsey, having completed his work as associate editor of 
the International Critical Tables, has returned to the Bureau of Standards. 


Mrs. AcNES CuHAsE, Associate Botanist in the Grass Herbarium, writes 
from Brazil that she had a severe trip ascending the mountain peak Caparaé 
in company with a botanical companion, Mrs. Mexia. She was assured 
‘St would be impossible for the senhora to climb Caparaé,” but after much 
insistence arrangements were made. Rain fell most of the time and every- 
thing was soaked. The first night out was to be spent at a cave which was 
reached about 4:30 p.m. It looked very inviting at first as it was dry, but 
the guide commented on the pulgas (fleas). She and her companion finally 
made camp in the rain rather than endure the fleas. They had dry clothes 
for the night but got back into wet clothes at day break. The trail became 
very steep through the bamboo zone. At last about 3:30 they struggled 
out of the bamboo into the campo. Antonio (the guide) said something 
about ‘muita corajosa’ [very courageous] for senhoras to make that ascent. 
He said no woman had ever done it before and very few men. Mrs. CHASE 
at Vicosa visited Professor Rours, who is an American in charge of a large 
and important agricultural school. Traveling alone, she collected at Har- 
greaves and Bello Horizonte. 


Mr. Marrurw.W. Stiruine, Chief of the Bureau of Ethnology left Wash- 
ington January 13 for a cruise among the Ten Thousand Islands between Char- 
lotte Harbor and Cape Sable, Florida, where he hopes to discover evidences of 


120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 


the former occupancy of this area by the Caloosa Indians. He will be aided by 
Mr. Lee Paris, of Tulsa, Okla., whose 85-foot yacht, Esperanza, will furnish 
transportation. After his explorations in the Ten Thousand Islands region 
Mr. Stirvine will excavate a large sand mound on the west Coast of Florida, 
located south of Tampa Bay. 





Obituary 


Capt. James Percy AvuLt, who was killed on November 29, 1929, when an 
explosion destroyed the non-magnetic ship Carnegie in the harbor of Apia, 
Western Samoa, was born on October 29, 1881, at Olathe, Kansas, and 
educated at Baker University where he received an A.B. degree in 1904. 
Even while studying in the University he took an active interest in the 
work of the then newly established magnetic observatory of the United 
States Coast and Geodetic Survey at Baldwin, Kansas, where he served as 
observatory assistant from January 1901 to June 1904. In the latter month 
he was appointed as magnetic observer in the Department of Terrestrial 
Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution, and the next year, after receiving 
the necessary preliminary training on the U. 8. Coast Survey vessel Bache 
on a cruise from Baltimore to Panama, he was assigned to scientific work on 
the magnetic-survey vessel Galilee where he remained until November 1906. 
During the next two years he was engaged at the office of the Department in 
Washington and on magnetic field work in Mexico and Canada, carrying out 
in the latter country a difficult exploratory trip in the course of which he 
secured magnetic results in territory where none had previously been obtained. 
In order to fit himself more thoroughly for a scientific career he next pursued 
postgraduate studies at Columbia University from which institution he 
received an A.M. degree in 1909. In view of his skill and experience gained 
on earlier expeditions, he was again, in 1912, placed in charge of field parties 
in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile, for the purpose of training new observers in 
making magnetic determinations under field conditions. 

In the general plan of a magnetic survey of the Globe which constituted one 
of the major operations of the Department, the ocean work of the non-mag- 
netic ship Carnegie was destined to play an important part. For the success- 
ful execution of this ambitious undertaking, Captain Ault, first as a member 
of the scientific staff under its first commander William J. Peters, and later 
as commander of the vessel, has been largely responsible. 





7 Wednesday, April 2 


Hkh) Thursday, April 3 
_ Friday, April 4 — 
Saturday, April 5-- 


OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS 


THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND 


AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS 


Thursday, March 20 


_ Friday, March 21. 


Saturday, March 22 
Wednesday, March 26 


Friday, March vs ae 
Saturday, March 29 
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Wednesday, March 19 The Engineering Society 


The Medical Society 

The ACADEMY 

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


President: Wi1am Bowrs, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


- Corresponding Secretary: L. B. TuckERMAN, Bureau of Standards, 


Recording Secretary: CHARLES THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, 





“ Treasurer; Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 




















Ontarat Parans : 


Physical Geography.—Peat profiles of the Everglades in Florida: the st 
features of the “‘Upper’’ Ever and correlation with env 
changes. ALFRED P. DAcHNOWSEI- ‘OKES 

Zoology.—Descriptions of two new amphipod crustaceans (Talitridae) | 
United States. Cuarence R. SHOBMARER eee ee sees esseeeeeiee 


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The Philosophical Society re ae 





ScreNnTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS {+ <ceearas 


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APRIL 4, 1930 No. 7 





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i JOU RNAL ~ = 
OF THE 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 Apri 4, 1930 No. 7 


GEOPHYSICS.—Noie on temperature gradients in the Permian basin. 
Wa ter B. Lane, U. 8. Geological Survey. (Communicated by 
W. C. MENDENHALL.) 


It has been shown? that the isogeothermal surfaces in the Permian 
Basin of West Texas and southeastern New Mexico are depressed and 
that this subnormal condition appears to have some relationship to 
the distribution and thickness of the halite and anhydrite deposits. 
In the fall of 1929 an opportunity was afforded to make a temperature 
test in a well which was so located as to yield some evidence as to the 
factor or factors of a large group of variables which might be responsible 
for the effect. This well (Transcontinental-McWhorter No. 1, Sec. 
6, T.3S8., R. 22 E., De Baca County, N. Mex.) was drilled through 
rocks locally identified as the lower San Andres, Yeso, Abo (Permian), 
and Magdalena (Pennsylvanian) formations and into what are be- 
lieved to be representatives of the pre-Cambrian schists and quartzites 
which outcrop in the Hills of Pedernal some 60 miles to the northwest. 
The San Andres and Yeso formations of this area are of interest be- 
cause they are composed of limestone and anhydrite and therefore con- 
tain only one of those two prominent but characteristic sediments, 
halite and anhydrite, of the Permian Basin. ‘This well by reason of its 
marginal position also has a stratigraphic range far greater than even 
deep wells in the basin proper. The geothermal gradient curve of this 
well began as representative of the region but on approaching the Abo 
formation began to take on a noticeably accelerated increase, so that 
on reaching a depth of 4,400 feet a temperature that would be high 
for the Permian Basin was recorded. It appears therefore that in- 


_. 3 Published by permission of the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Received 
February 18, 1930. 
2This JouRNAL 19: 232. 1929. 
121 


122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 7 


ternal heat is being dissipated more rapidly by the upper anhydrite- 
bearing sediments of this section than it is being supplied by the lower. 

If the thermal conductivity tables for rocks are consulted it is found 
that the majority of the more usual types have conductivities within 
the range of .002 to .008 calories (em. sec. Grad.). Anhydrite and 
halite are reported to have conductivities of .0123 and .0137 calories, 
respectively. Now it is indicated by this test that anhydrite alone, 
present as alternate beds with limestone in the upper section of the 
well, influences the character of the gradient curve by depressing it. 
The previously noted apparent westward extension of subnormal tem- 
peratures beyond the halite boundary is thus also subject to explana- 
tion. Also the diathermanous property of halite is eliminated as a 
primary factor, for if this property of halite were the sole cause of sub- 
normal temperatures in the basin the effect could not be recorded in 
this well. Anhydrite in association with even thicker beds of halite of 
still greater conductivity coefficient in the basin proper may be ex- 
pected to conduct heat faster than it can be supplied by other sedi- 
ments at greater depth. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that the 
depression of the isogeotherms of the Permian Basin are the direct 
result of the high thermal conductivities of these two prominent sedi- 
ments. 

Other sedimentary regions involving considerable halite or anhy- 
drite not covered by too great an overburden of low conductivity 
rocks should yield low gradients, if the area in which they occur is not 
subject to other extraneous heat-producing sources. The Permian 
saline deposits of Germany have been so affected by tectonic disturb- 
ances as apparently to have counteracted the expectable high conduc- 
tivity influences. 

Radioactivity is proposed by some authorities as one of the princi- 
pal sources of the earth’s heat. Potassium is radioactive (Beta-ray) 
and even though the unit energy is low in proportion to uranium, the 
percentage of potassium present in the average rock is sufficient to 
produce heat equivalent to that of uranium.* ‘The saline deposits 
(late Paleozoic) of West Texas and New Mexico for an area of more 
than 40,000 square miles carry potash in disseminated and concen- 
tratedform. Local areas equivalent in size to a township have beds 
6 to 15 feet thick analyzing 10 to 30 per cent of potash (K.0O). These 
deposits have remained undisturbed during all of Mesozoic and Ceno- 


’ ARTHUR Hormms and R. W. Lawson, Potassium and the heat of the earth. Nature, 
May 1, 1926, pp. 620-621. 


APRIL 4, 1930 LANG: TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS 123 


zoic time, yet in only one temperature test made in a well penetrating 
these beds is there the faintest suggestion of the possible influence of 
radioactivity and even in this case the variation may be explained on 
another basis. Despite this radiothermal heat the temperature gra- 
dients are excessively low. More powerful agencies. than radioactivity 
control geothermal gradients in the basin. Perhaps radioactivity is 
also of minor importance in other areas of the earth. 

A sphere of uniform composition heated at the center and cooling 
at the surface has perfect concentric isothermal zones. Wanting 
evidence to the contrary, it is assumed the inner portion of the earth 
is isothermally zoned. The crustal portion of the earth, variable in com- 
position and relief, must have isothermal surfaces broadly expressing 
the influences of these variations. 

An explanation of the varying behavior of the isogeotherms of any 
region is very likely to be dependent, in part or in whole, upon differen- 
tial rock conductivities. Critical data of the sort necessary to deter- 
mine the influence of rock conductivities in general upon temperature 
gradients do not exist. This is largely due to the fact that such deter- 
minations as have been made (industrial, building stones, ete.) were 
not made with a view to the solution of geological problems. Com- 
paction, porosity, bedding, mineral orientation, degree of crystalliza- 
tion or cementation, water content, etc., are in only a few instances 
considered or noted. Nevertheless, these small factors sometimes 
yield enormous cumulative effects. Questions of conductivity parallel 
and perpendicular to bedding can not be decided by data now at hand. 
A dry sediment compacted by loading may have greater density across 
the bedding and therefore greater conductivity in this direction. How- 
ever, the same rock saturated with water‘ may have greater conductiv- 
ity along the bedding. Whether or not oil-bearing anticlines owe 
their heat to exothermic reactions or stratified thermal conductivity 
is a question dependent upon more specific data. Mass orientation of 
minerals of ellipsoidal conductivity properties may be expected to 
give widely divergent results for different positions of the rock speci- 
mens. 

Until supposition is supported by more exact basic criteria reasoning 
about geothermal problems is apt to rest on an unsound foundation. 
There is urgent need for data on the thermal conductivity of rocks as 
they exist under natural conditions. 


4 JosePH PrEstTwicH, Controverted questions in geology. Macmillan & Co., 1895, p. 
241, | 


124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 7 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—Peat profile studies in Maine: The 
South Lubec “heath” in relation to sea level.1. A. P. DAcHNOWSKI- 
Stokes, U. 8S. Bureau of Chemistry and Sorts. 


I 


The following study, carried out principally south of Lubec at Carry- 
ingplace Cove in Maine, was made with two purposes inview. In 
connection wth field work regarding the quality and possible uses of 
moss peat in “‘heaths,”’ it contemplated an intensive profile study of an 
exposed coastal highmoor which is being cut back by waves at a rapid 
rate. At the same time it was hoped that observations of sufficient 
precision concerning the position of the moor in relation to sea level 
would furnish the necessary data for determining, by comparison with 
later observations, whether or not the coast was subsiding. 

Carryingplace Cove occupies the eastern extremity of Maine in 
Grand Manan Channel and lies close to the boundary line of New 
Brunswick, Canada. The general position and surrounding environ- 
ment of its peat area are illustrated on chart No. 801 of the U. S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey and on the maps accompanying the East- 
port Folio No. 192 of the Geologic Atlas of the United States. 

The topography of the deeply embayed coast has been recognized as 
giving evidence of normal drowned valleys and of indicating that the 
thin southern edge of the last continental ice sheet had not greatly 
altered the character of the valleys. At the time of the retreat of the 
ice the Eastport region is believed to have been at least 100 feet lower 
with reference to sea level than at present. This is indicated by num- 
erous small deposits of marine gravel beds with delta structure front- 
ing the ocean. Glacio-marine sands and clays were laid down in the 
extended sea of that period and eroded more or less as the ice retreated 
and the land rose to its present height. 

The geology and botany of the region and adjacent portions of New 
Brunswick, Canada, have been investigated by American and Canadian 
scientists and from a summary of these studies, notably the work of 
Ganong (16, 17) Fernald (14), Bastin (3, 4) Johnson (18), and others, 
it is apparent that the general features have already been correctly 
interpreted. Accumulating evidence indicates, however, that certain 


1 Received February 15, 1930. The field work was done in September 1929 with the 
assistance of R. D. Knicut. The map, photograph, and control data of elevations above 
sea level are contributed by R. J. Bnuron of the U. S. Geological Survey, to whom the 
writer desires to express his obligation and appreciation of the interest and aid rendered 
in furthering the work. 


APRIL 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 125 


salient details have not been worked out. One of the most interesting 
questions to be considered concerns, on the one hand, the nature of the 
different layers of peat and the climatic conditions under which they 
were formed during the past period; on the other hand, the variations 
in sea level that may have taken place since that time, either a sinking 
of the coast to the northwest or a rise in sea level. 

Postglacial deposits which began to form in late Pleistocene and 
have continued to the present day include areas of peat. Many of 
the beaches as well as peat deposits along the coast are fully exposed to 
the wave action of the Atlantic, and erosion is dominant at present. 
Bastin (4) reports on the shore of Moose Island due south of Carlow 
Island an area of peat which is now flooded by the sea at high tide 
and is thus being converted into a salt marsh. Bartlett (2) described 
a peat deposit on the shore of Quamanisset Harbor near Woods Hole, 
encroached upon by salt marsh. Dawson (13), Chalmers (5) and 
others have pointed out locations of submerged forests in Canada and 
Johnson (18) and Daly (12) have assembled much evidence to show 
that such changes are in progress elsewhere. 

Significant in connection with this discussion are recent peat profile 
studies made on an eutropic lowmoor of the semi-arid region—the Delta 
Land in California (11). The area is a bay-like depression near the 
outlet of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers and is located at sea 
level. In vertical structure the deposit represents essentially the 
successional stages of vegetation leading from open water to marsh, 
that is to say, it presents the aspects of a two-layered, limnogenic 
profile series characterized by a basal layer of finely divided sedimen- 
tary peat, derived from submerged and semi-aquatic, fresh-water 
plants, followed bya surface layer of fibrous peat originating from reeds 
(Phragmites sp.) and tule (Scirpus sp.). The shore line of the ancient 
lake is at present over 20 feet below sea level, from which it appears 
that a general downward movement has been in progress near San 
Francisco Bay. Such subsidence is indicated, moreover, by two feet 
of silty salt marsh overlying reed and tule peat near Fairfield in Suisun 
Bay, California. The Delta region is particularly interesting both 
because it is regarded as the best case of drainage in connection with 
irrigation, navigation, and flood control, and because of the fact that 
subsidence seems inevitable on account of the well-established oscilla- 
tions along the Pacific Coast. 

In striking contrast is the profile structure of an eutrophic lowmoor of 
the sub-tropical region, notably that portion of the Florida Everglades 
bordering the southern shore of Lake Okeechobee (10). A basal 


126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 7 


layer of fibrous sawgrass (Cladiwm sp.) peat is succeeded by a surface 
layer of relatively dense, impermeable sedimentary peat, characterizing 
a two-layered, telmatogenic profile series. Lake Okeechobee is a 
body of water in a hydrostatic condition; it was impounded relatively 
recently to a height of more than 20 feet above sea level by the accumu- 
lation of the superimposed layer of sedimentary material and buoyancy 
of fibrous peat layers retarding the movement of inundating flood- 
waters. The profile records obtained in the Everglades lead toward 
the conclusion that the area began as an autochthonous deposit with 
sedge peat accumulating over bedrock on an essentially stable shore 
line of the Atlantic Coast. It will be worth while therefore, to ascer- 
tain whether peat deposts on the sea coast in northeastern Maine 
offer convincing facts which may amplify or clarify those furnished by 
other investigators, and to test as well the theory, offered by geologists, 
and physiographers, of a general submergence of the North Atlantic 
Coast. 


II 


The South Lubec “heath” at Carryingplace Cove, shown in fig. 1, 
occupies nearly all the neck of land connecting West Quoddy Head 
with the mainland. The deposit covers today only 20 to 25 acres and 
is protected on the south by a broad sandy barrier beach. On the 
north it is entirely unprotected from the action of ocean waves and 
exposed as a nearly vertical cliff, about 10 feet high, from which every 
storm causes the removal of masses of peat. According to residents 
over one-fourth of the present acreage has been swept away by the 
force of the waves during the last 25 years. 

The peat area is of peculiar interest on account of the ae as- 
semblage of plants, native to both Europe and America, and the 
raised, dome-shaped configuration of its surface, rising 6 to 8 feet from 
margin to center (7, 20).. The present vegetation is predominantly of 
northern range, with a number of arctic plants. A conspicuous ex- 
ample is the crowberry, Empetrum nigrum, which is abundant on the 
peat deposits along the Bay of Fundy but elsewhere and inland occurs 
only above timber line, as at Mt. Washington in New Hampshire, or 
Mt. Rainier in the State of Washington. 

There is a marked similarity in vegetation between the different 
convex-shaped ‘“‘highmoors”’ which extend in a widening belt from the 
northeastern coast of Maine into New Brunswick, Canada (16). An 
abundant development of sphagnum mosses grows in rounded hum- 


APRIL 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 127 





a 







QC OMDEL 
“Ary 


,-= 






















SS 3 
RX. 


= 
ee = = « 
Red Sa elgel ° Les OO Asp es 
“= : (ve A 5S \Q 
ee SIN IME Wie ys 4 /0 Wormell Ledges ans 
P os ies oo Sony uy S | ( @ Y a CoN 
ea auiay Soxth Lahec: c= 
wr Ve WO (Geen 
oN AN t. 


| 
| | 
SA | 
4 Boot Cove | 

Fig. 1—Map showing location of South Lubec “‘heath’’ in Maine. The control data 
in relation to sea level were determined at the point marked by an arrow. The numbers 
in the shoal tidal flat indicate depths at mean low water. 


128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 7 


mocks, of which Sphagnum fuscum, S. acutrfoluum, S. medium, and 
the bright red S. tenellum with S. ambricatum, topped by species of 
Polytrichum, make up the bulk of the ground vegetation. It is a 
common sight to see the moss carpet almost covered by Hmpetrum 
nigrum. Decidedly less abundant are sedges and the heaths which 
usually characterize the drier portions of a peat deposit. Ryncho- 
spora alba, Eriophorum vaginatum, Scirpus caespitosus, and a golden 
rod (Solidago sp.) have only a limited, scattered foothold. The cloud- 
berry (Rubus chamaemorus) with its few leaves from hidden stems 
dots the mosses, and the heaths such as Andromeda polifolia, Rhodo- 
dendron canadense, Cassandra (Chamaedaphne) calyculata, Ledum 
latifolium, L. groenlandicum, species of Kalmia and Vaccinium, are 
scanty and greatly dwarfed. Drosera rotundifolia, Sarracenia pur- 
purea, and several lichens (Cladonia rangiferina, C. uncialis) are com- 
mon in hollows and moist places but not abundant. On the eastern 
margin occur stunted black spruce (Picea nigra) with possibly birch 
(Betula sp.) and a few small tamarack (Larix americana) which become 
larger toward the upland in an undergrowth of bushy heaths. The 
peat area at Carryingplace Cove may thus be considered as a success- 
ional stage in the boreal climax and as belonging to the region of north- 
ern conifers. 


III 


Regarding the procedure which is followed in peat profile studies 
and in the accumulation of data for correlating the various factor: at 
each location, reference to earlier publications (8) is sufficient. The 
nearly vertical exposure facing the tidal waves on the north, and the 
profile sections which were made with the American peat-sampling 
instrument at various points on the heath moor, indicate that this 
deposit is made up of more than 10 feet of peat. Stratigraphically it 
represents three different layers which correspond to successional 
stages of vegetation passing from a marsh of sedges and Hypnum mosses 
into a conifer forest and finally into the raised bog of sphagnum mosses. 

To determine the elevations of these layers and to lay the basis for 
future observations as to the extent to which earth movements may 
occur in this locality, measurements were made by means of the Bea- 
man telescopic alidade. Starting at the bench mark of the United 
States Coast and Geodetic Survey in the city of Lubec, Maine, the 
elevation of which is 118.4 feet above sea level, and extending a line 
south about three miles to South Lubec, the elevations obtained at the 
point indicated on the accompanying map are as follows: 


APRIL 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 129 


Mean sea level elevations of layers in South Lubec, Maine, peat 
profile: 


Surface of sphagnum moss peat layer 13.0 feet 
Surface of conifer forest peat layer 6.0 = 
Surface of hypnum moss and sedge peat layer A ete 
Contact with underlying mineral soil DO ws 
Total thickness of peat deposit at point of observation 1O-0ey 


The upper layer of sphagnum moss peat varies in thickness from 
6 to 9 feet. The material contains a moderate quantity of stringy- 
fibrous tufts from cotton-grass (Hriophorum sp.) but is rather free 
from roots and other impurities. The layer is reddish to yellowish 
brown in color, spongy-fibrous, and poorly decomposed. It shows a 
number of thin alternating bands of dark brown to grayish black, 
largely decomposed organic debris. Some of the narrow bands appear 
to be finely divided organic material which collected in shallow pools 
of water (Schlenken). Other bands are more convex in form and con- 
sist mainly of woody debris derived from heaths; they are probably due 
to short periods of drought that caused a temporary dominance of low 
ericaceous shrubs and favored an advanced stage of decomposition. 
The comparatively uniform texture of the well-preserved moss peat 
makes it plain that the growth of the sphagnum mosses was influ- 
enced by blankets of fog or cool-moist and maritime climatic conditions 
during that period. The accumulation of moss peat was slow but 
prolonged and completely buried an underlying forest of conifers. ‘The 
inferred peat-forming processes are those primarily due to water 
saturation which had the effect of maintaining reduction processes 
(6:372) in both organic and inorganic material, instead of oxidation 
upon which decomposition depends. An alternation between an 
upper light-colored younger, and a darker, more decomposed, lower 
and older layer of moss peat, as traced in the cross sections of many 
Kuropean highmoors, does not occur in this locality. 

Toward the bottom appears a buried forest of trees consisting of 
stumps with numerous roots, shown in fig. 2. The layer is about 13 
feet thick and seems to be present over the entire peat area. The 
specimens examined were derived from pine, tamarack, spruce, and 
possibly fir. A similar basal layer of woody peat appears to prevail 
in the heaths at Veazie and Denbo (8), at Jonesport, Trescott, Colum- 
bia Falls, Pushaw Lake, and Hermon Center, and an abundance of 
roots and stumps has been reported also for the peat deposits of north- 


130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 7 


eastern Canada. The recent account of Auer (1) describes layers of 
stumps at the bottom of cross sections in peat deposits which are being 
cut away and exposed by the action of the waves in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence. As layers of woody peat are present also in peat areas 
farther inland, it is logical to assume an extensive development of 
forests, spreading over wide stretches of country under conditions of 
environment which no longer exist. The climate, and probably coastal 
marine currents of this period, must have been warmer. The whole 
region must have passed into a drier stage throughout, and climatic 
conditions must have set in that were in consequence more continental 
and southerly in character than it is now in Maine. 

The layer of peat resting directly on the mineral soil below and form- 
ing the bottom of the whole deposit, consists of a compact, yellow- 
brown, felty-matted network of well preserved stems and leaves from 
Hypnum mosses (Amblystegiwm sp.and others) in which are embedded 
the rhizomes of sedges (Carex sp., Cladium sp.), black rootstocks of 
Equisetum sp., seeds of Menyanthes, the elytra of beetles, and other 
inclusions. Sedimentary organic debris, indicative of ancient lakes 
or ponds, is not present. The layer of basal peat is about 16 inches 
thick and in an advanced stage of decay only at the upper limit sup- 
porting the stumps of trees 7n situ. There is nowhere an indication 
for assuming that at one time the area constituted a part of a lake 
formed by the building of a barrier beach across a recess in the coastal 
shore line, or that it supported plants growing in brackish or salt 
water. It is very probable, therefore, that the layer began to form 
when the sea level had retreated sufficiently to expose the shore to 
glacial waters from the melting ice-sheet. Species of Hypnum mosses, 
such as Amblystegium, were more abundant at that early period than 
at present, and a variety of sedges with cattail and reeds, scattered 
freely throughout the ancient marsh, occupied the habitat. The 
evidence obtained by soundings from peat areas elsewhere in Maine 
and Canada points strongly to the fact that the land laid bare by the 
receding ice was occupied at first by extensive sedge and reed marshes 
which spread over the more open, level, and wet places where forests 
could not gain a foothold. The northward migration of these plant 
communities must have occurred at the waning stage and during the 
steady recession of the ice border when climatic conditions began to 
be warmer and were better suited than now to the growth of these 
plants. 

Thus it will be seen that since the glacial period many evidences 


APRIL 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 131 


and important records of unusual interest have been left in peat profiles. 
The layers reveal the history of the region and point to the existence 
of a distinct regional succession in vegetation. They suggest that the 
coast must have projected at that time far enough above sea level to 
enable many species of plants, referred to by Fernald (15) as char- 
acteristic of southern coastal regions, to have migrated into northern 
localities. The majority of the plant remains in the three-layered pro- 





Fig. 2—Lower portion of the peat profile exposed by the action of tidal waves eroding 
the South Lubec ‘“‘heath.’’ In the illustration are shown (a) the contact of the under- 
lying mineral soil with (b) the basal layer of peat derived from an ancient marsh of hyp- 
num mosses and sedges, (c) the roots and stumps of a former conifer forest which spread 
over the country and (d) the superimposed layer of sphagnum moss peat. Photographed 
at low tide September 29, 1929 by R. J. Belton. 


file of the South Lubec heathmoor are generically the same as those 
in the highmoors of Europe, of which the belt in Maine appears to be 
the western extension. Striking changes are recorded by the layers of 
peat, obviously indicating corresponding changes in climatic factors 
which condition the growth of plants and hence the regional charac- 
teristics and the distribution of broad groups of peatland.? 

2 For the general correlations between plant successions, stratigraphic features of 


peat profiles, and past climates, as recorded in moors, see ‘‘Reports of the conferences 
on cycles’? Carnegie Institution of Washington, pp. 54-66. 1929. 


132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 7 


The underlying mineral soil is a glacial gray bowlder clay, locally 
sandy to gravelly and stony where the material has been subjected to 
the action of marine currents and waves, as in the very shoal bay north 
of the peat area, showing a depth of one foot at mean low water. 

Beneath the thick covering of peat the mineral soil is gray to bluish 
gray in color and resembles the “‘glei’’ horizon reported in descriptions 
of the moors of northern Europe. At the margin where the cover of 
peat is less thick and soil-forming processes are active owing to the 
influence of drainage and lower moisture conditions, the development 
of pedologic features may be observed. The mineral soil underlying 
the relatively thin peaty cover is characterized by a leached horizon 
which at the lower level is more or less sharply demarked by a brown 
horizon, below which a rust-colored, iron-stained and spotted horizon 
resembling ‘‘Ortstein’”’ is recognizable. These features are especially 
well displayed in a peat area about 25 miles northeast of Jonesport, 
Maine, which is being cut away by the waves of Chandler Bay, ex- 
posing natural sections. Marbut (19) has pointed out in his scheme 
for soil classification that profile characteristics of this type are the 
effects of podsolizing processes. There is no evidence of either a con- 
spicuous amount of decomposition, leaching, or enrichment in the 
overlying peat layers, due primarily to the high moisture content of 
the material, its great absorptive power for atmospheric water and its 
coldness under the prevailing climatic conditions. Corresponding 
differences in the chemical composition between the three main layers 
may be expected. The surface layer of moss peat exhibits the pecu- 
liarities common to this type of peat-material, namely relatively low 
content of available nitrogen, and of mineral salts such as lime, a gener- 
ally high acidity, and comparatively large quantities of poorly decom- 
posed crude fiber (celluloses and lignin-like constituents) and ether- 
alcohol soluble substances. On the basis of these observations the 
belt of peatlands in northeastern coastal Maine, of which the South 
Lubec heath is the type locality, has been designated for convenience 
as “highmoors”’ of the oligotrophic group of peatlands, representing 
a telmato-ombrogenic, three-layered profile series (9). 


IV 


Comparisons in terms of economic uses show that none of the high- 
moors are under cultivation. They are practically a waste in the 
sense that they have no value for agricultural crops, for grazing of 
cattle and horses, or for afforestation under existing conditions. No 


APRIL 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 133 


attempt is being made to utilize the moss peat commercially for the 
purposes to which the great quantities imported from Europe have 
long been employed. It is safe to state that at least 85 per cent of the 
“‘heaths’’ in the neighborhood of Jonesport, Maine, contain a quality 
of moss peat equal if not superior to the imported material. The 
supply merits attention as a basis of local industries, partly because 
the location of some of the highmoors is unusually favorable for hand- 
ling and shipment by vessels from adjacent harbors. ‘The areas would 
furnish a large supply of moss peat for use as an absorbent in stables, 
bedding for poultry, mulch for certain evergreen shrubs and trees, 
organic filler for highgrade, concentrated, mineral fertilizers, and as 
packing material for storing bulbs, fruits and vegetables. A number 
of profitable uses of different kinds of peat have been enumerated in 
an earlier publication (6) and in Bulletin 802, issued by the U. 8. De- 
partment of Agriculture. The present uses for which peat moss is 
especially adapted include composts as an organic manure, an ingred- 
ient of top dressing on golf courses and in greenhouses, and in the 
general improvement of soil texture. The different methods employed 
for excavating and handling peat and for preparing composts have 
been described in Circular 252 of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 


SUMMARY 


1. To understand the nature of the dome-shaped ‘“‘heaths”’ on the 
northeastern coast of Maine consideration is given to the structural 
features of vertical cross-sections in the existing environment, and to 
the history of the region after the retreat of the ice sheet. 

2 The intrinsic characteristics of the South Lubec peat profile are 
due mainly to three major successions of vegetation, closely corre- 
lated, it seems, with differences in climatic conditons; the profile 
represents three distinct layers of peat, superimposed upon one another 
and derived from marsh, forest, and: sphagnum moss plant communities. 

3. The arctic alpine plants, such as Empetrum nigrum and others 
found in the present surface vegetation are not an early but a late 
stage of succession. 

4. Evidence appears to point conclusively to a former extension of 
the South Lubec “heath” moor from its present termination at Carry- 
ingplace Cove as far probably as Woodward Point. Such a land 
connection affords the only possible explanation of the age, thickness, 
stratigraphy and other profile features which the peat area has in 
common with other coastal and inland highmoors, notably with the 
highmoors at Jonesport and Columbia Falls, Maine. 


134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 7 


5. At one time probably a marine beach of sand and gravel pro- 
jected for a long distance in a northwest direction across the shoal 
tidal flat, connecting the north shore of West Quoddy Head with the 
mainland. Shifting marine currents have doubtless caused the removal 
of a barrier beach and exposure of the highmoor to the cutting action 
of the waves. The sea has operated on the coast in this region since 
comparatively recent times. 

6. The position of the South Lubec peat area in relation to sea 
level supports the conclusion, reached by investigators in other sciences, 
of a recent and progressively greater submergence of the coast toward 
the northeast. 

7. It is probable that considerable areas of coastal plain existed in 
geologically recent times, possibly from New Jersey to Newfoundland, 
which have been worn away by a shift in marine currents and that a 
northward migration of plants took place when forests gained a foothold 
upon sedge marshes or lowmoors, and spread extensively under cli- 
matic conditions that were warmer than it is now in Maine. 

8. The South Lubec “heath” is a member of the “‘highmoors”’ of the 
oligotrophic group of peatlands, and is characterized by a three- 
layered, telmato-ombrogenic profile series. The development of 
pedologic features at the margin of the heath indicates the effects of 
podsolizing processes active in this region. 

9. The economic uses of the highmoors in Maine merit greater 
attention. The moss peat in the South Lubec ‘‘heath” and in the 
areas of peat around Jonesport, Maine, is equal if not superior to the 
imported material. Its use as a commercial product for various pur- 
poses can be made profitable in localities with facility for shipment by 
vessels. 


LITERATURE CITED 


1. Auvmr, V., Stratigraphical and morphological investigations of peat bogs of south- 
eastern Canada. Comm. ex. inst. quaest. forest Finnlandiae 12: 1-62. 1927. 

2. Bartuet, H. H., The submarine Chamaecyparis bog at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. 
Rhodora 11: 221-235. 1909. 

3. Bastin, E. S. and Davis, C. A., Peat deposits in Maine. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 
376. 1909. 

4. Bastin, E. S. and Witu1ams, H. S., Description of the Eastport Quadrangle, U. S. 
Geol. Survey, Geologic Atlas of the United States, Eastport Folio No. 192. 1914. 

5. Cuatmers, R., Report on the surface geology of New Brunswick, Northwestern 
Nova Scotia, and a portion of Princé Edward Island. Geol. Surv. Canada, Ann. 
Rept., N. Ser. 7. 1895. | 

6. DacunowskI, A. P., Peat deposits of Ohio. Ohio Geol. Survey Bul. (4) 16, 1912. 

7. DacunowskI, A. P., Profiles of peat deposits in New England. Ecol. 7: 120-135. 
1926. 


oad 


APRIL 4, 1930 MORTON: NEW ESENBECKIA 135 


8. DacunowskI-SToxkss, A. P., The botanical composition and morphological features 
of ‘‘highmoor”’ peat profiles in Maine. Soil Sci. 27: 379-388. 1929. 

9. DacHNowskI-STOKEs, A. P., Research in regional peat invéstigations. Journ. 
Amer. Soe. Agronomy: 1930. 

10. DacHNowskI-SToxgs, A. P., Peat profiles of the Everglades in Florida: the strati- 
graphic features of the ‘‘Upper’’ Everglades and correlations with environmental 
changes. THis JOURNAL 20: 89. 1930. 

11. DacHNowskI-StToxss, A. P., Peat profiles of the Delta Land of California. Proc. 
and Papers Second Intern. Congress Soil Sci., U.S. S. R. 1930. In press. 

12. Daty, R. A., A general sinking of sea level in recent time. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 
6: 246-250. 1920. 

13. Dawson, J. W., On a modern submerged forest at Fort Lawrence, Nova Scotia. 
Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 11: 119-122. 1855. Amer. Journ. Sci. 2nd 
Ser. 1,: 440-442. 1856. 

14. Fernatp, M. L., A botanical expedition to Newfoundland and southern Labrador. 
Rhodora 13: 109-162. 1911. 

15. Fernaup, M. L., Persistence of plants in unglaciated areas of boreal America. Mem. 
Am. Acad. Arts & Sci. 15: 239-243. 1925. 

16. Ganong, W. F., Upon raised bogs in the province of New Brunswick. Trans. R. 
Soc. Canada 3: 131-163. 1897. 

17. Ganone, W. F., The vegetation of the Bay of Fundy salt and dyked marshes: an 
ecological.study. Bot. Gaz. 36: 161-186, 280-302, 349-367, 429-455. 1903. 

18. JoHNson, D. W., The New England-Acadian Shoreline. John Wiley and Sons, New 
Work.) 1925. j 

19. Marsout, C. F., A scheme for soil classification. Proc. & Papers First Intern. Con- 
gress. Soil Sci. 6: 1-31. 1928. 

20. Nicxots, G. E., Raised bogs in Hastern Maine. Geogr. Rev. 7: 159-167. 1919. 


BOTANY .—A new species of Esenbeckia from Texas.1 C.V. Morton, 
U. S. National Museum. (Communicated by Wiiuiam R. 
Maxon.) 


On April 15, 1929, Mr. Harvey Stiles noticed several trees on the 
banks of the Resaca Vieja in Cameron County, Texas, which he did 
not recognize. From one of these he made an herbarium specimen 
which he gave to Mr. Robert Runyon, of Brownsville, Texas, who sub- 
sequently sent it to the United States National Museum for identifica- 
tion. On examination it proved to belong to the genus Hsenbeckia 
(Rutaceae-Pilocarpinae), a genus hitherto not known to be indigenous 
to the United States. Moreover, it is obviously distinct from any of 
the six or seven species of the genus known from Mexico and the West 
Indies. 

Mr. Runyon, who has since made several visits to the locality, sup- 
plies the following note: ‘‘There are four small, round-topped trees 
of the H’senbeckia on the banks of the Resaca Vieja, three miles north- 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
February 15, 1930. 


136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 7 


west of Los Fresnos. The leaves put out very late in the spring. In 
the last part of June they were about one-third grown, and on the 
second of July the flowers were fairly well open. The trees flower and 
fruit twice annually. The fruit bursts open and scatters the seeds at 
maturity.” 

Esenbeckia runyoni Morton, sp. nov. 


' A small round-topped tree nearly 5 meters high; twigs glabrous up to the 
inflorescence; leaves digitately compound, 3-foliolate; petioles 14 cm. long, 
pubescent; leaflets elliptic, rounded at base, short-petiolulate (2-5 mm.), 
obtuse at apex, 6-10 cm. long, green and glabrous on both sides, densely pel- 
lucid-punctate, entire, the margin thickened; inflorescence paniculate, dense, 
not exceeding 8 cm. in length, the branches of the panicle alternate, puberu- 
lent, the bracts subulate; pedicels 2-3 mm. long, each with a small subulate 
bract at the middle, pubescent; flowers cream colored, about 8 mm. broad; 
sepals deltoid, roundish at apex, pubescent, ciliolate, 1 mm. long, scarcely 
imbricate; petals oval, 3-3.5 mm. long, glabrous, glandular on the back; 
stamens 5, alternate with the petals; filaments shorter than the petals, about 
2 mm. long. glabrous; anthers oval, 1 mm. long; ovary 5-lobed, the fleshy 
disk 2.5 mm. broad; style basal, short and fleshy, 1-1.5 mm. long, glabrous; 
stigma terminal, capitate; fruit a woody 3, 4, or 5-celled capsule, roughened 
on the exterior but without conspicuous tubercles; horny endocarp conspicu- 
ous, at maturity splitting elastically and ejecting the seeds, the capsule after 
splitting about 2 cm. long and 3-4 em. wide; seeds dark brown, about 10 mm. 
long and 8 mm. wide, with a short curved beak. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,438,940, collected on the bank 
of the Resaca Vieja, 3 miles northwest of Los Fresnos, Texas, July 8, 1929, by 
Robert Runyon (no. 177), a flowering specimen. Fruiting material collected 
from the same group of trees by Harvey Stiles, April 15, 1929, is mounted on 
sheet no. 1,436,973. 


Esenbeckia runyont belongs to the section Hymenopetalae Engl. and is 
most closely related to E. pentaphylla (Macfad.) Griseb., of Jamaica and south- 
ern Mexico, from which it is distinguished by its 3-foliolate (never 5-folio- 
late) leaves and its smaller leaflets, and by other more important diagnostic 
characters, as shown in the following key. The key also distinguishes E. 
runyont from its nearest geographical relative, H. berlandieri of northern 
Mexico. The other species of the genus which occur in Mexico (E. hart- 
mannii, E. flava, E. nesiotica, HE. macrantha, and E. collina) are not closely 
related. 


Kry 


Sepals scarcely imbricate, deltoid, pubescent; bracts of the inflorescence 
subulate. Disk 2.5 mm. broad; seeds with a curved beak... E. runyoni. 
Sepals strongly imbricate, much broader than long, and broadly rounded at 

apex; bracts of the inflorescence short, triangular-ovate. 
Disk 2.5 mm. broad or more; inflorescence elongate; sepals pubescent; 
BEGOS Wabitra Uwe Gd some fit ets a) 2 cn iennis eee eens E. pentaphylia. 
Disk 1.5 mm. broad or less; inflorescence more compact; sepals glabrous 
or sometimes ciliolate; seeds with a straight beak........ E. berlandieri. 


APRIL 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 137 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


998TH MEETING 


The 998th meeting, constituting the 59th annual meeting, was held in the 
Cosmos Club Auditorium, December 7, 1929, at 8:15 P.M. 

The Treasurer reported expenditures of $1182.92 for the year, and stated 
that the active membership of the Society is 227. 

The Secretaries reported that the following new members were elected 
during the year: R. R. Bopuz, F. C. Breckenripes, E. J. Brown, G. S. 
Coox, M. J. Evans, R. E. Gouutp, W. D. HersHpercer, C. 8. Howarp, 
C. J. Ksanpa, H. E. McComps, H. B. Maris, R. F. Ment, J. H. Taytor, B. 
L. WILSON. 

The following deaths were reported: S. J. Maucuty, C. V. Hopason, 
E. L. Jonzs, A. C. Trun, H. C. FRANKENFIELD, Francis A. Tonporr, J. P. 
AULT. ‘ 

The following officers were declared elected for the year 1930: President, 
W. D. Lampert; Vice presidents, F. E. Wriaut; Corresponding Secretary 
H. L. Curtis; Corresponding Secretary, L. V. Jupson; Treasurer, N. H. Hecx; 
Members-at-large of the General Committee, E. W. Woouarp, O. H. Gisu. 

At the conclusion of the business meeting PAUL SOLLENBEIGER gave an 
illustrated address to the Society (by invitation) on The Naval Observatory 
eclipse expedition to Iloilo, P. I. 


999TH MEETING 


The 999th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January 4, 
1930. 

The address of the evening was given by the retiring President, Dr. LEASoNn 
H. Apams, on The significance of pressure in geophysical investigations. 


1000TH MEETING 


The 1000th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January 18, 
1930. 

The first communication in the celebration of the 1000th meeting was an 
illustrated address by W. J. Humpureys on The Philosophical Society of 
Washington through a thousand meetings. After a résumé of the history of the 
Society a number of the distinguished past presidents of the Society were 
shown upon the screen. 

Reminiscences of the early days of the Philosophical Society were given by 
J. H. Gorz and by C. F. Marvin. 


1001stT MEETING 


The 1001st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February 1, 
1930. 

Program: H. L. Drypren and A. M. Kurrus, Effect of turbulence in wind 
tunnel experiments. A brief historical summary was given of the appearance 
of certain discrepancies in measurements of the air resistance of spheres and 
airship models in different wind tunnels. On the basis of qualitative experi- 
ments the discrepancies have in the past been attributed to turbulence, i.e. 


138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 7 


the small ripples or eddies superposed on the approximately steady air- 
stream. The Bureau of Standards in codperation with the National 
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has developed a method of measuring 
turbulence quantitatively and has given definite experimental proof that the 
discrepancies are to be attributed to an effect of turbulence. Further, it is 
possible to explain the effects as due to an effect of turbulence on the critical 
Reynolds Number of the boundary layer at which the flow changes from the 
laminar to the eddying type. (Author’s Abstract.) 

W. F. Wattis, A comparison of magnetic disturbance at different stations. 
This paper states briefly some of the results of a discussion of the magnetic 
records obtained during the MacMillan Baffin Land Expedition of 1921-22, 
as compared with the results from several other observatories distributed over 
the Earth. As a suitable basis for comparison a short, well-defined, world- 
wide, magnetic storm (March 14, 1922) was selected, and departures from 
normal values were compiled and compared by three methods. The first 
method is based on the vector AR which is the difference between the dis- 
turbed and normal total-intensity vectors, F and F., referred to three rectan- 
gular codrdinates. The second method involves the excess energy of the mag- 
netic field due to the disturbance. The third method is* based on a formula 
for magnetic activity proposed by Chree, namely, C(Ri + R3 + R%), where 
C is any convenient constant and R,, Ro, and R; are absolute daily ranges in 
three rectangular components of the total magnetic intensity. Any one of 
these methods gives results which may be taken as measures’ of magnetic 
disturbance. The disturbance values, computed by the three methods, when 
plotted according to magnetic latitude, give three curves closely resembling 
each other, and resembling also the curve of auroral frequency in its relation 
to magnetic latitude. The conclusion is that the geographic distribution of 
magnetic activity during disturbance bears a close relation to the auroral zone, 
and there is evidence that the zone of maximum auroral frequency is also a 
zone of maximum magnetic activity. A diagram, giving hourly mean hori- 
zontal and vertical-intensity disturbance vectors during the 18 hours of the 
magnetic storm of March 14, 1922, shows that, during the progress of the 
storm, these vectors vary widely in both direction and amount. If, however, 
instead of dealing with a single disturbance, we take average values of the 
disturbance vectors over several months, including many disturbances both 
large and small, there is a marked regularity in the directions of these vectors 
for the individual stations, and for all stations the general direction of the 
horizontal-intensity disturbance vectorsis southward. This indicates that the 
disturbing currents in the upper atmosphere flow in general from east to west 
around the Earth. (Author’s Abstract.) 

J. E. Wiis, Recent experiments with timekeepers. An account was given 
of experiments with several electrical methods of impulsing clock pendulums, 
including a method utilizing the amplified current of a photoelectric cell, the 
illumination of which is controlled by the motion of the pendulum, to charge 
a condenser after passing through the impulse coil which reacts on a perma- 
nent magnet to give energy to the pendulum. Pendulums were driven at 
amplitudes less than a tenth and approaching a hundredth the customary 
amplitudes of clock pendulums, so that the circular error was theoretically of 
the order of one part in ten million. Such small amplitudes are not practical 
for mechanically driven pendulums. Since driving impulses of equal intensity 
occurred on each half-stroke of the pendulum and at the same point in space 
(neglecting lag of impulses), the epoch changes due to non-centering of im- 
pulses were balanced. ‘The epoch changes due to lag of impulses were con- 


APRIL 4, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 139 


sidered to be reduced to the order of one part in a million, and the variables 
concerned were measured. Observations with free pendulums indicated that 
the damping coefficient is less for small amplitudes than for large amplitudes. 
The observed timekeeping of the clocks of small amplitudes seemed to indi- 
cate that disturbances such as microseisms, by which such clocks are obviously 
more affected than are ordinary clocks, may be the limiting cause of inac- 
curacy in clocks with a single pendulum. Preliminary experiments with a 
pair of pendulums so connected that they keep a half cycle apart suggest 
the feasibility of the use of such a system in earthquake-proof clocks, which 
may have a higher order of accuracy than the clocks now in use. (Author’s 
Abstract.) 

Oscar 8. ApAms, Recording Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


On February 25th the American Geographical Society awarded the Daly 
gold medal to Dr. N. H. Darron for extensive explorations in the western 
United States and Mexico, and the Cullum gold medal to Dr. C. F. Marsur 
for his work on the distribution of soils in the United States, South America, 
and Africa. 


Miss FREDERICA DE LAGUNA, a graduate student in Anthropology at 
Columbia University, who accompanied a Danish archeological expedition 
to Greenland last summer, recently spent a week in the Division of Ethnology 
of the U. 8S. National Museum, studying the Alaskan material excavated by 
Mr. Co.Luins. ; 


Mr. H. J. REINHARD, of the Texas Experiment Station, is spending several 
weeks at the National Museum, working on a group of muscoid flies. 


Mr. AuBerrt C. Situ, of the New York Botanical Garden, spent the month 
of January at the Division of Plants of the National Museum, assisting Mr. 
Kiuure in sorting the material they recently collected in Peru and Brazil. 
The work of mounting the National Museum’s set of 9200 collection numbers 
has been started, and the duplicate sets will soon be ready for distribution. 


The Council of the Fifteenth International Geological Congress, meeting 
in South Africa in 1929, accepted an invitation from the geologists of the 
United States to hold the Sixteenth Congress in this country. An organiza- 
tion committee has been formed, as required by the rules adopted by the 
Thirteenth Congress, held in Brussels in 1922, and plans are being made for 
the entertainment of the Congress. Nineteen hundred thirty-two has been 
agreed upon as the year in which the meeting will be held, and the principal 
sessions will probably be in Washington, with excursions to points of geologic 
interest in the United States. The petroleum resources of the world has been 
agreed upon as a major topic for discussion. 


Lyman F. Knpirr, for many years government specialist in drugs and 
medicines, dealing with the enforcement of food, drug, and mail order laws, has 
been made medical director of the Tennessee Products Corp., Nashville, 
Tenn., where his work will include assistance in the utilization of by-products, 
medicinally and otherwise, as well as many health matters connected with the 
corporation’s activities. Doctor Kebler will take over his new duties April 1. 


140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 7 


Doctor Kebler will continue to be medical director of the John McEntee 
Bowman health interests, identified with the Biltmore chain of hotels, and in 
addition to his general headquarters in Washington, D. C., will have offices 
in Nashville, Tenn., and New York City. 


The Charles Lathrop Pack Forest Education Board, founded by the 

Charles Lathrop Pack Forestry Trust of Washington, D. C. announces a 
aumber of fellowships in forestry for the year 1930-31. The purpose of the 
fellowships is to encourage men who have shown unusual intellectual and 
personal qualities to obtain training that will best equip them for future leader- 
ship either in the general practice of forestry, in the forest industries, in the 
teaching of forestry, in forest research, or in the development of public forest 
solicy. 
The awards will be made to gifted men who demonstrate natural powers of 
intellectual and personal leadership, and who intend to make forestry their 
life work. The sum of $10,000 is available the first year. The awards will 
range from $500. to $2500. or more in exceptional cases and will ordinarily be 
restricted to men of American or Canadian citizenship. No restrictions are 
made as to age, educational status or practical experience, but great emphasis 
will be placed on character, intellect, qualities of leadership, and similar 
qualifications. 

The administration of these fellowships has been placed in the hands of 
the Charles Lathrop Pack Forest Education Board, which is composed of the 
following: Chairman, Henry 8. Graves, Dean, School of Forestry, Yale 
University, New Haven, Conn.; Secretary, Warp SHEPARD, United States 
Forest Service, Washington, D. C.; Samuren T. Dana, Dean, School of Fores- 
try and Conservation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; JoHn Fotey, Pur- 
chasing Agent, Pennsylvania Railroad, Philadelphia; Antoun Newton 
Pacx, Princeton, N. J., Director, Charles Lathrop Pack Forestry Trust; E. 
QO. Steck, Director, Texas Forest Service, College Station, Texas; ELLwoop 
Witson, Chief Forester, Laurentide Division, Canada Power and Paper Cor- 
poration, Grande Mere, Quebec; Huco WINKENWERDER, Dean, College of 
Forestry, University of Washington, Seattle; RapHarL Zon, Director, Lake 
States Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, Minn. 

Application forms and other information can be obtained from the Secre- 
tary of the Charles Lathrop Pack Forest Education Board, 1214 Sixteenth 
Street, N. W., Washington, D.C. For the current year the completed appli- 
cations must be in the hands of the Secretary not later than April 15. 





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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


et President: WILLIAM Bowlz, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
Corresponding Secretary: L. B. TuckeRMAN, Bureau of Standards, 


Recording Secretary: CHARLES THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. 





G. AvErs, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 




















Oriana grocer 


.. 


Geophysics.—Note on EER gradients in the Permian basin, 


LANG. 33 oR ee ee ee ee Jo «nba ow a eee 


Physical Geography.—Peat profile studies in Maine: The South cae 


relation to sea level. A. P. DACHNOWSEI-STOKES........-2-00eeeee 
Botany.—A new species of Hsenbeckia from Texas. C.V.Morvon.......... 


of 


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¥ . The Philosophical Society avy nessa hake co 
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Mee 20 Aprit 19, 1930 No. 8 


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Vou. 20 Aprit 19, 1930 No. 8 


CHEMISTRY.—The volumetric determination of fluorine by the use of 
ferric chloride. Joun G. Farrcniup, U. 8. Geological Survey. 
(Communicated by R. C. WELLS.) 


INTRODUCTION 


The volumetric determination of fluorine by means of ferric chloride 
given in Thorpe? and Sutton?, which was proposed by Knobloch‘ in 
1894, depends on the reaction: 


FeCl, + 3NaF = FeF; + 3NaCl . (1) 


An excess of ferric chloride is used and the excess determined iodi- 
metrically. Greef* also uses ferric chloride but removes the fluorine 
as the compound Na;FeF, by means of a concentrated solution of 
sodium chloride. The apparent simplicity of this method suggested 
its use in the determination of fluorine in phosphate rock. It was soon 
found, however, that the results were very erratic and far from correct 
and that variation in any one of several conditions independently was 
of decided influence on the results. It was therefore decided to inves- 
tigate the several conditions controlling the method in the hope that 
accurate determinations of fluorine could be made, with the result that 
suitable conditions were finally found which make the method far more 
reliable than it was in its original form. 


1 Published by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. Received 
February 18, 1930. 

2 Dict. Appl. Chem., vol. 11, 590. 1912. 

3 Volumetric Analysis, 10th ed. 1911. 

4 Pharm. Ztg. 39:558. 1894. 

5 Ber. 46: 2511. 1913. 


141 


142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 8 


REAGENTS 


A carefully selected specimen of fluorite was used as the fluorine 
standard. A mixture of dicalcium phosphate, feldspar and fluorite (to 
simulate phosphate rock) was fused with sodium carbonate, the melt 
leached with water and the solution of fluorine obtained as described 
under ‘“‘method for phosphate rock.’ The figures under ‘‘fluorine 
taken’’ in the tables below represent aliquot portions of this solution. 
The residue from the leaching was found to be free from fluorine as will 
be shown later. 

The ferric chloride used was 0.08 molal and contained one volume of 
normal hydrochloric acid in each 5 volumes of the solution. More acid 
was added in some experiments, as stated in the table of results. The 
thiosulphate was 0.05 normal, of which 1 ml. = 0.002850 gram of fluor- 
ine. 


PROCEDURE 


Each portion taken for analysis was made just acid to litmus with 
about 2 N hydrochloric acid and mixed with the solution of ferric 
chloride in a 250 ml. glass-stoppered flask. The salts finally present 
in the flask—which were added if not already present—were: 2 grams 
of sodium chloride, and zinc chioride equivalent to 0.05 gram of zine 
oxide. The volume was made up to 100 ml. and the flask placed in a 
water bath the temperature of which was controlled to1°C. After the 
time specified the solution was cooled as quickly as possible and titrated 
with thiosulphate. The difference between the thiosulphate used and 
that equivalent to the ferric chloride taken represents the fluorine pres- 
ent. 


DiIscUSsION OF CONTROLLING CONDITIONS 


Knobloch states that reaction (1) runs to completion even in the 
presence of hydrochloric acid and that the resulting mixture sets free no 
iodine from a soluble iodide. However, although ferric fluoride is 
practically. without action on an iodide, it can easily be shown that the 
further addition of a small quantity of hydrochloric acid sets free some 
iodine. It would therefore seem preferable to titrate in a nearly neu- 
tral solution, but a solution of ferric chloride must be appreciably acid 
for complete reduction by potassium iodide.” That these two require- 


6 These are the quantities of sodium and zine chlorides likely to be present in the final 
aliquot solution of a phosphate rock. 

7 The larger quantities of hydrochloric acid recommended by Swirr (Am. Chem. 
Soc. Jour., 51, 2682. 1929) as permissible in the iodimetric determination of iron are 
quite out of the question in the determination of fluorine. 


APRIL 19, 19380 FAIRCHILD: VOLUMETRIC DETERMINATION OF FLUORINE 143 


ments are directly opposed to each other is perhaps the explanation 
for the neglect of this method heretofore. The success of the method 
as finally worked out really depends on securing a definite balance 
among the several equilibria involved to yield correct results. When 
these conditions were learned it was found that the results were reliable 
and reproducible. 

The conditions that affect the results to a greater or less degree are: 
(1) the acidity, (2) the concentration of potassium iodide, (3) the excess 
of ferric chloride, (4) the time, (5) the temperature, and (6) the quan- 
tity of sodium and zinc chlorides present. 

The results are shown in table 1. Experiments 1, 2 and 17 show the 
marked effect of varying the acidity, and that too little acid yields high 
results. Experiments 3, 4, and 5 show that unnecessarily large quanti- 
ties of potassium iodide yield low results. Experiments 6, 7, and 18 
refer to variation of the excess of ferric chloride. When these results 
with an acidity of 5.5 ml. N HCl are compared with those just preced- 
ing (3, 4 and 5 with an acidity of 3.2 ml. HCl) it appears that sodium 
chloride is effective in raising the result. Perhaps this salt represses 
the ionization of the hydrochloric acid and hence decreases the speed 
of the reduction of the ferric chloride; however that may be, more acid 
can be used when sodium chloride is present. 

The effect of the absence of sodium chloride is also indicated in 
experiments 13 to 16, which show in addition the large effect of tem- 
perature. Whereas Knobloch gives 35 to 40° as a permissible tempera- 
ture range it is seen that control within practically 1° is essential for 
correct results. Knobloch does not specify any definite acidity or 
excess of iodide, which have also been shown to be extremely important 
factors. 


CONDITIONS RECOMMENDED 


Four suitable conditions for the determination of fluorine may now 
be fixed as: (1) Potassium iodide, 0.5 gram; (2) sodium chloride, 2 
grams, zinc chloride equivalent to 0.05 gram zine oxide; (3) time, 30 
minutes; (4) temperature, 38°C. 

Experiments 20 and 21 show that accurate determinations may be 
made of as little as 5 mg. of fluorine. Such a quantity requires not 


8 The known solution for these three experiments was prepared from sodium fluoride 
and contained no sodium and zinc chlorides. In most other experiments sodium chloride 
was added as shown in Table 1. Sodium fluoride was also used in Experiments 6, 7, 10 
to 16, and 18. . Its fluorine content was established by reference to fluorite under similar 
conditions. 


144. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 8 


more than 5 ml. of ferric chloride, but if the ferric chloride is cut down 
to this quantity the acidity must also be cut down to 2.2 ml. N HC1.9 
Table 2 has been prepared to show suitable relations in the quantities 
of ferric chloride and hydrochloric acid. It seems probable, however, 
that an acidity of 5.5 ml. N HCl will hold for even larger quantities of 
fluorine and ferric chloride. 

The starch-iodide end point is stable for several minutes in the 
presence of a few milligrams of fluorine, but with several centigrams it 
is Stable for only about one minute. 

The results of experiments 1 to 17 in Table 1 indicate the variations 
that occur under more or less incompatible conditions, whereas those 
in experiments 17 to 21 show the accuracy to be expected under a 
related set of definite and suitable conditions. It is hardly necessary 
to point out the advantages in time and accuracy of the volumetric 
method over the Berzelius method at least. 


METHOD FOR PHOSPHATE Rock 


Half a gram of the powdered material is mixed with about 0.2 gram 
calcium oxide and ignited gently to remove organic matter. If the 
rock is low in silica and alumina, these must be supplied by the addition 
of about 0.75 gram of finely ground feldspar which is intimately mixed 
with the sample ina mortar. Fusion with about 6 grams of sodium 
carbonate is continued only to the point of quiet fluidity. 

The melt is leached with hot water and the insoluble filtered off. 
The filtrate is next treated with about 5 grams of ammonium chloride 
and evaporated to about one-half volume when ammonium carbonate 
is added with more water and evaporation continued to precipitate 
alumina and silica. The addition of the carbonate and water should 
be repeated. This requires about 4 hours. The filtrate from the 
alumina and silica, about 150 ml. in volume, is nearly neutralized with 
1-1 hydrochloric acid in the presence of a small piece of litmus paper, 
carbon dioxide is partially expelled by evaporating slightly, then an 
excess of zine chloride solution (0.5 gram ZnO dissolved in a little HCl) 
is added to precipitate the phosphoric acid and possible vanadium. A 
few drops of ammonia may be added at this point to insure alkalinity 
of the solution when evaporated to about 100 ml. It is filtered cold 
and the precipitate well washed with cold water. This filtrate is then 
diluted to a definite volume, say 250 ml. The fluorine may be deter- 


° The acidities under discussion include the acid in the ferric chloride. 


APRIL 19, 1930 FAIRCHILD: VOLUMETRIC DETERMINATION OF FLUORINE 145 


mined in 100 ml., made just acid to litmus paper with hydrochloric 
acid before being added to the solution of ferric chloride contained in a 
stoppered flask. The final procedure has been given under “‘conditions 
recommended.” The first aliquot portion taken for titration is in the 


TaBLe 1. Errect oF VARIATION IN THE CoNTROLLING CONDITIONS 





Potassium Ferric Sodium Fluorine Recovery 


Time 


Bap. No.|w‘ncimn.| ‘edide | ehloride | cMoride | seinytes | Temp.°C. |) taken | por cent 
1 4.0 0.5 15 2 30 38 0.0243 '20e5 
2 5.0 0.5 15 2, 30 38 —60.0243 109.7 
3 See 0.5 10 None 30 38 0.0290 96.9 
4 Se 0.7 10 None 30 38 0.0290 That, 
5 ee 1.0 10 None 30 38 0.0290 62.7 
6 5.5 0.5 30 2 30 38 0.0580 Pies 
vi 5.5 0.5 25 2 30 38 0.0580 108.6 
8 5.0 0.5 15 None 30 38 0.0290 77.6 
9 5.2 0.5 20 None 30 38 0.0580 87.3 

10 one O25 10 None 15 38 0.0145 1 2b 
11 2 0.5 10 None 30 38 0.0145 97.2 
1 mea 0.5 10 None AD 38 0.0145 93.1 
13 3.2 0.5 10 None 30 33 0.0145 105.5 
14 Sap 0.5 10 None 30 36 0.0145 99.3 
15 Biag4 0.5 10 None 30 38 0.0145 97.2 
16 Bs 0.5 10 None 30 43 0.0145 76.6 
17 52D 0.5 155 2 30 38 0.0243 99.7 
18 Seg) 0.5 20 D, 30 38 0.0580 100.0 
19 B55) 0.5 15 2 30 38 0.0290 102.7 
20 5.0 0.5 10 2 30 38 0.0071 98.6 
21 A 0.5 5 yy 30 38 0.0049 98.5 


TaBLE 2. RECOMMENDED RELATIONS OF FERRIC CHLORIDE AND HyprocHuoric ACID 
UsEp To FLUORINE PRESENT 


Fluorine Gram Ferric chloride Milliliters Acidity, N HCl Milliliters 
0.000-0.010 5 Zee 
0.010-0.020 10 4.5 
0.020-0.030 15 5.5 
0. 030-0. 060 20 5.5 


nature of a trial analysis which is to be checked by selecting the proper 
volumes of ferric chloride and acid for a second aliquot portion. 

No fluorine was found in the insoluble residue of silica, calcium 
carbonate, alumina and zine phosphate by the etching and hanging- 
drop tests. The presence of alumina, aided by fine grinding of the 
materials to an intimate mixture, promotes the extraction of fluorine. 


146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 8 


SUMMARY 


A detailed study of the conditions that must be observed in the 
volumetric determination of fluorine has been made. Suitable con- 
ditions are recommended for quantities of fluorine ranging from 
0.005 to 0.060 gram, which range may probably be extended in both 
directions. 

Nearly perfect extraction of fluorine in phosphate rock has been 
accomplished by the aid of aluminum silicate, by fine grinding, and by 
removing calcium carbonate before adding ammonium carbonate. 

Phosphoric acid is removed as zinc phosphate, thus preventing the 
formation of insoluble ferric phosphate with the ferric chloride. 


CHEMISTRY.—The solubility of some rare-earth nitrates in ether. 
R. C. Wztts, U.S. Geological Survey. 


In his well known work on the analysis of pitchblende Hillebrand? 
separated most of the rare earths from uranium by means of ‘‘oxalic 
acid and two or three drops of ammonium oxalate,” but he states that 
the uranium thus obtained always contained some rare earths. One 
expedient that he tried for removing the last traces of rare earths 
from the uranium was to extract the uranium nitrate with ether. No 
information is given to show the efficiency of this treatment, but it is 
reasonable to assume that it must have been fairly effective. 

The treatment with ether was also used by Boltwood* and more 
recently by C. W. Davis! to aid in the separation of uranium from the 
rare earths. Very recently a paper has been published by P. Misciat- 
telli® dealing with the special case of the separation of uranium from 
thorium by means of ether, in which attention is called to divergent 
results obtained by different investigators, as well as to the fact that the 
extent of separation obtained will depend on the temperature and on 
the composition of the mixture of salts treated. With uranyl nitrate 
alone at 20° Misciattelli finds the saturated solution to contain 8.8 per 
cent of uranyl nitrate, and similarly, for thorium nitrate alone, 1.5 per 


1 Received March 8, 1930. Published with the permission of the Director of the U.S. 
Geological Survey. 

2W.F.HrLLeBRAND. On the occurrence of nitrogen in uraninite and on the composi- 
tion of uraninite in general. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 78: 47. 1891. 

3B. Bottwoop. Am. J. Sci. [4] 25: 269. 1908. 

aC We Davas: ihm. J: Sex. ilo), ta .20L. MIO26: 

5 P.MiscratTevur. Phil. Mag.7: 670. 1929. 


APRIL 19, 1930 WELLS: SOLUBILITY OF RARE EARTH 147 


cent of this salt. However, if a large excess of uranium nitrate is pres- 
ent in the ether, at 20°, the solubility of thorium nitrate is greatly 
repressed. 

The literature dealing with the solubility in ether of the nitrates 
of such elements as might contaminate uranium in mineral analysis is 
rather scanty. Uranium nitrate itself is very soluble. Lebeau® gives 
the solubility as 5.9 grams of the hydrated salt in 10 grams of the solu- 
tion at 7°C. He also refers to Péligot’ as the first to have purified 
uranium by means of ether. Comey’s Dictionary of Solubilities gives 
as “easily soluble”’ the nitrates of yttrium (Cleve), and erbium (Hé6g- 
lund), and as “insoluble” the nitrate of didymium (Marignac). In 
view of the preceding facts it seemed highly desirable to check and 
extend the observations. 


SOLUBILITY OF SOME NITRATES IN ETHER 


Weight of oxide Weight of oxide 

Nitrate obtained from obtained from 
Cet: 10 ml..of solution 10 ml. of solution 
(Stock material) | (Salt dried at 150°) 


: Gram Gram 
PS Tp yey MUI pag Vc tte hare Me Wha SOMA 0.0027 0.0002 
DR apie ee tn he ME ees aR Ie os ical 0.0792 0.0803 
PPC ERENEUIT eye eee hor eh WEIR ETL rR Vem ONO A Pi a Rh te 0.0003 0.0004 
_ AP ICULOGN OU OG RSs Die Bee ERATE OO UE AT EE oe ng Oo Dee 0.0002 0.0001 
CTE IUET 2 Geet See On URNA IGT. aie eter rem Uae ne ay 0.0010 0.0139 
PrasceodymMium..........-.. SEE ag ea blah yy ate Ms lp al ga SEN 0.0004 None 
PS corehyIMiltlinegen opt Shot nearness Myles ha! Ske RIM. oes Aes 0.020 0.267 
JENS DUONG» AEN os AN Sra Re SO We ee a ee a 0.162 0.190 
TEIN AEDT AR SAME Ney aan OUT ATS pans Os Siar Sr et22 0.367 


This was done by covering a few grams of each of the various nitrates 
available with about 20 ml. of ether in small stoppered flasks, agitating 
the flasks from time to time, and allowing them to stand at about 20° 
at least over night, as is done in the well known method of separating 
calcium nitrate from strontium nitrate by means of a mixture of alcohol 
and ether. Finally, 10 ml. of the solution was withdrawn, filtered if 
necessary, evaporated, and the resulting salt ignited to oxide and 
weighed. The results are given in the second column of the table. 
After this extraction the remaining salts were freed from ether, dis- 
solved in water and a few drops of nitric acid, evaporated to dryness 
at 150°C., and again extracted with ether, with the results given in 
the third column. 


6 P. LeBeau. Compt. Rend. 152: 4389. 1911. 
7H. Pextigor. Ann. Chim. Phys. [8] 5:5. 1842. 


148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 8 


The nitrates dried at 150° became more or less flocculent, when 
treated with ether, in the case of yttrium, neodymium, erbium, and 
thorium, and it is possible that addition compounds with ether were 
formed, but this was not investigated further. The solution of the 
anhydrous neodymium nitrate had a pronounced lavender color, and 
the results for the hydrated and dehydrated salts were different. 
Evaporation of the ether left beautiful prismatic crystals of erbium 
nitrate which, as soon as the ether was gone, appeared to begin to 
effloresce, but in a very short time became sticky by absorption of 
moisture from the atmosphere. 

It is evident from the results found that the degree of dehydration 
of the nitrates greatly affects their solubility in ether, and it is well 
known that the different salts are not equally dehydrated by drying at 
any given temperature. The more soluble salts are those of thorium, 
yttrium, neodymium, erbium and cerium. As thorium nitrate is the 
most soluble of these it appears likely that the relations found for 
mixtures of uranium and thorium nitrates by Misciattelli® will hold to 
some extent for mixtures of uranium and the other nitrates, though 
this remains to be determined. 

As the treatment with ether appears to have some limitations 
in removing the rare earths from uranium it would appear best to use 
oxalic acid, but avoid ammonium oxalate, as ammonium oxalate is 
probably the cause of the appearance of thorium with uranium. ‘The 
uranium may also be purified and later precipitated with cupferron.® 

The results here described suggest that ether could perhaps find 
some application in separating the different rare earths from one 
another. 


KTHNOLOGY .—Little-known tribes of the Salmon, New, and Trinity 
Rivers in northwestern California.: C. Hart MErriam, Smith- 
sonian Institution. 


Probably no part of the United States is so little known from the 
standpoint of its aboriginal inhabitants as a small area in the mountains 
of northwestern California—an area restricted to the drainage basins of 
the Salmon and New Rivers with adjacent parts of the main Trinity 
and its South Fork. 


8 HOLLADAY and CUNNINGHAM. Am. Electrochem. Soc. Trans. 43: 329. 1923. 
1 Received March 8, 1930. 


APRIL 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY . 149 


Within a radius of forty miles from Hoopa Valley there were in whole 
or in part the home lands of nineteen tribes of Indians, representing eight 
linguistic stocks. It is doubtful if in any other part of the world there 
are in so smail an area so many tribes speaking different languages. 
Most of these tribes are fairly well known, but during the mining days 
of the fifties and early sixties several of them were practically extermi- 
nated by the onrush of gold seekers and the troops called in to help. 
Indeed, so complete was the destruction that in the case of four 
of the tribes the few survivors succeeded so well in remaining hidden 
from inquisitive eyes that not even the names of the tribes were ascer- 
tained by anthropologists. However, after repeated visits to the 
region I have been able to obtain these—in each case the correct name 
as spoken by its own people. 

The tribal names in question are: For the tribe on New River, 
Tlo-hom-tah’-hor; for the tribe on the upper branches of Salmon River 
Hah-to-ké-he-wuk; for the tribe at the mouth of South Fork Trinity 
River, T'sd’-nung-hwah; for a tribe higher up on South Fork Trinity, 
immediately south of the Chemareko and west of the Norrelmuk, 
Ni-v’-che. Still another tribe, the Ko’-no-me’-ho of lower Salmon 
River, has been known by name for some time, but the fragment of 
vocabulary published as Ko’-no-me’-ho by Dixon in 1907 is that of 
another tribe. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Q94TH MEETING 


The 994th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October 12, 
1929. Program: N. H. Hecx presented a seismological motion picture. 
This picture was presented before the Philosophical Society as a matter of 
interest rather than the presentation of new information. The matter of 
special interest was the ability of a representative of the Pathe Corporation 
under the supervision of Prof. Kirtley Mather of Harvard University to 
make a complete representation of some of the principal physical phenomena 
of an earthquake as ordinarily conceived, so as to be instructive. The ani- 
mated cartoon idea has been used to advantage. 

H. H. McComs, Some recent instrumental investigations in terrestrial mag- 
netism and seismology. 

The primary function of the magnetic observatory is to furnish a continuous 
record of the variations of the earth’s magnetic field both in magnitude and 
direction. Naturally, in spite of every precaution, instrumental problems 
arise from time to time and these must be solved at once at the field station if 


150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 8 


possible. Major problems calling for special investigations in terrestrial 
magnetism in so far as it applied to the work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey 
are attacked at the base station at Cheltenham, Maryland. 

The problems connected with magnetic recording instruments are numerous 
and they are being investigated continuously. The vertical intensity variom- 
eter will be discussed first. This instrument is essentially a permanent 
magnet system mounted on pivots and resembles the beam of a very delicate 
balance. Apparently the chief problem connected with this instrument has 
been in the pivots as the instrument is usually operated at a fairly high sensi- 
tivity. Three different types of pivot have been investigated. It is desirable 
that the instrument function at a constant sensitivity. This sensitivity is 
easily affected by the slightest mechanical disturbance. A new method of 
determining this sensitivity by the use of a large deflector at a considerable 
distance from the variometer has been adopted. As the magnet is affected 
by temperature changes a simple method of temperature compensation has 
been adopted. This consists in the attachment of a second magnet to the 
variometer in such a position and at such a distance that the resultant vertical 
component at the center of the recording magnet is just one-half the normal 
component of the earth’s field. . 

The horizontal intensity variometers of this Bureau are with one exception 
torsion instruments. A small recording magnet is held in the magnetic prime 
vertical by torsion of a quartz filament varying in size from .004 to .006 cm. 
in diameter and about 15 em. in length. The chief problem connected with 
this instrument has been in the attachment of the filament to the magnet and 
to the torsion head of the filament tube in such a manner as to prevent slipping 
or yielding at the junction. ‘The present method, which shows some promise 
of success, consists in bending the tips of the filaments at right angles before 
imbedding in shellac or solder. 

The hourly ordinates of the three elements, horizontal intensity, declination 
and vertical intensity are scaled directly from the magnetograms. This is 
accomplished by the use of special scales which are graduated to suit the 
particular variometer. This method of direct scaling eliminates several steps 
in the process of reduction of values for publication. 

In codperation with the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the 
Carnegie Institution of Washington some very accurate determinations of the 
period of an oscillating magnet were made by use of the photo-electric cell and 
the chronograph. By using this method the accuracy of the determination of 
the moment of inertia of a magnet was somewhat increased. 

In the field of seismology old instruments of low magnification and mechan- 
ical registration have been replaced by modern instruments, such as the 
Milne-Shaw, the Wood-Anderson and the Wenner. ‘The first two types are 
direct recording photographic instruments and are affected by tilting of the 
pier due to temperature changes or to other causes resulting in more or less 
loss of record due to overlapping of the lines. A method of tilt compensation 
for instruments of the Milne-Shaw type has been suggested which if put into 
actual practice might eliminate these troublesome effects. As the Wenner 
instrument is of the galvanometric registration type there is no trouble from 
tilt in spite of its very high magnification. 

Quite recently one of the Bosch-Omori horizontal pendulums formerly in 
operation at Cheltenham has been modified for photographic registration. It 
has a normal magnification of about 75, oil damped and is compensated for 


APRIL 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 151 


tilt by the use of an oil coupling device. There is need for an instrument of 
this type for the registration of severe earthquake disturbances or to supple- 
ment the records from high magnification instruments when these records 
might be difficult of interpretation due to the presence of heavy microseisms. 
(Author’s Abstract.) 

Oscar S. Apams, Recording Secretary. 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


458TH MEETING 


The 458th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the 
Cosmos Club, January 8, 1930, President G. R. MaNsFIELp presiding. 

Informal communications: W. H. BrapuEy explained a method of deter- 
mining amount of compaction of a marlstone in the Green River formation 
and original porosity of the limy mud before consolidation, by the differential 
compaction shown by the marlstone and by contorted sandy casts of mud- 
cracks. ‘These were shown by lantern slides. Discussed by Messrs. MEn- 
DENHALL, RuBEY, MEINzER, and BRapDLEY, and by Miss Bascom. 

C. S. Ross called attention to the kaolinization of quartz in quartzite 
and arkose in the southern Coastal Plain States. Lantern slides were presented 
which showed kaolin crystals formed inside quartz grains and also patches of 
quartz now separated by kaolin, but with identical optical orientation and 
originally parts of a single grain. Discussed by Mr. ScHaIRER. 

Program: JosiaH BripGE: Early structural history of the Ozark region. 

Discussed by Messrs. Ulrich, Rubey, and Goldman, with reply by Prof. 
Bridge. 
as Haroutp T. STEARNS: Geological development of the upper Snake Raver 

alley. 

Discussed by W. C. ALDEN and G. R. MANSFIELD. 


459th MEETING 


The 459th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cos- 
mos Club, January 22, 1930, President G. R. MANSFIELD presiding. 

The Council announced the election of Mr. ARTHUR Barwick, of the Cath- 
olic University of America, to Active Membership in the Society. 

Informal communications: W. C. MENDENHALL announced that the next 
International Geological Congress will be held in the United States in 1932 or 
1933. 

W. B. Lane presented a new interpretation of the subnormal temperature 
gradients in the Permian Basin of West Texas and New Mexico, under which 
the low gradient is explained by high thermal conductivity of salt and anhy- 
drite as compared with other rocks. Discussed by M. I. Gotpman. 

Program: H. E. Merwin: The sulphides of copper and iron. 

Discussed by Messrs. TUNELL, Lasky, SCHAIRER, and SPENCER. 

H. G. Fereuson: Vein quartz of the Alleghany district, California.—Study 
of the texture of vein quartz from the Alleghany district, California, indicates 
that there has been at least partial recrystallization of the quartz, but it is 
thought likely that this reerystallization may be confined to the portions of 
the veins in which there is evidence of actual deformation. There is evidence 
that a portion of the vein quartz is the result of replacement of wall rock and 
gouge, but fissure filling also played a part in the vein formation. The rela- 
tive importance of the two processes is uncertain. If the veins were formed 


152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 8 


chiefly as the result of fissure filling and recrystallization has not been wide- 
spread, the texture of the vein quartz and the relation of the quartz to the 
arsenopyrite and to-isolated foreign inclusions suggests that there was a stage 
prior to consolidation in which a viscous, gelatinous, or slushy condition pre- 
vailed. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. GILLULY, GOLDMAN, and Lasky. 

W. C. AupEeNn: Columbia River terraces and their significance: Discussed 
by Messrs. Pardee, Gilluly, and Miller. 


460TH MEETING 


The 460th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the 
Cosmos Club, February 12, 1930, President G. R. MANSFIELD presiding. 

The Secretary read a resolution from The Geological Society of America 
extending thanks to the Geological Society of Washington and other organi- 
zations for their contributions to the success of the 42nd Annual Meeting of 
the Geological Society of America. 

Informal communications: M. I. GotpMAN exhibited a large crushed and 
fractured concretion from the Eagle Ford clay of Texas, 2 to 4 feet below the 
base of the overlying Austin chalk. Some smaller concretions collected from 
the phosphate zone at the base of the Austin were also shown. The origin of 
the large concretion as a transported ‘‘clay ball’ was suggested. Discussed 
by Messrs. RusBry and Lane. 

G. R. MANSFIELD exhibited some pebbles collected by Prof. J. H. Brerz 
from bars in mouths of creeks tributary to Snake River. The pebbles from 
one bar were angular, from another partly rounded but with broken faces. 
These were attributed to percussion while the pebbles were carried in rapidly 
moving water. The pebbles were exhibited as contributory evidence of the 
““Spokane Flood.” 

Program: G. W. Stose: Reriew of the peneplains and gravel terraces of the 
Northern Appalachians.—A historical sketch of the recognition and naming of 
the peneplains and terraces was given, followed by a statement of their present 
status and ages assigned. 

The conclusions reached were as follows: The Schooley peneplain, devel- 
oped in the Highlands of New Jersey and the Piedmont, appears to be of 
Jurassic and early Cretaceous age. The Kittatinny peneplain, developed 
west of the Piedmont, is either the Schooley peneplain uplifted by fault move- 
ment on an old Triassic fault plane or it is an older and higher peneplain. The 
Weverton peneplain, developed west of the Piedmont, may be the same 
as the Honeybrook peneplain in the Piedmont and similarly uplifted by a 
fault, and it is probably of late Cretaceous age. Gravel is preserved on the 
plain at 720 feet above sea level on Hellam Hills, adjacent to Susquehanna 
River. The Sunbury peneplain, possibly of Eocene age, carries gravel at 620 
feet above sea level in the vicinity of Columbia, Pa. The Bryn Mawr pene- 
plain and gravel is correlated with the Harrisburg peneplain at 560 feet at 
Harrisburg, and is regarded as of Pliocene age. It carries gravel at 500 feet 
elevation near Columbia. The Brandywine strath and gravel, correlated 
with the 500-foot plain at Harrisburg, carries gravel at 420 feet near Colum- 
bia. The gravel is probably Jerseyan outwash. The Sunderland strath 
and gravel is the same as the Bridgeton of New Jersey and is correlated with 
the 380-foot gravel terrace above Columbia. It carries outwash of an 
Illinoian glacier near Sunbury. The Wicomico strath and gravel, the same 


APRIL 19, 19830 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 153 


as the Pensauken of New Jersey is correlated with the 320-foot gravel terrace 
above Columbia. It carries outwash of an early or middle Wisconsin glacier. 
The Talbot strath and gravel, the same as the Cape May of New Jersey, is 
correlated with the 280-foot gravel terrace above Columbia. It carries out- 
wash of a late Wisconsin glacier. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Miss Bascom and by Messrs. Rusrey, Burrs, and M. M. 
LEIGHTON. 

C. R. LonewELu: Some problems of mountain structure and mountain his- 
tory. 
Pckastd by Miss Jonas and by Messrs. FERGuSON and STosz. 

JAMES GILLULY and CarRLE H. Dans, Secretaries. 


THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


416TH MEETING 


The 416th regular meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington 
was held at 8 p.m. Thursday, January 9, 1930, in the U.S. National Museum. 
The Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer read a letter from Mr. W. L. McATEx, 
Treasurer of the American Ornitholgist’s Union, suggesting that the Entomo- 
logical Society of Washington subscribe to or otherwise render financial aid to 
support the Zoological Record in its work of abstracting scientific literature. 
On motion of Mr. RoHweEr it was voted by the Society that the name of Dr. 
L. O. Howarp be placed in nomination by the Corresponding Secretary of the 
Entomological Society of Washington for honorary membership in the Wash- 
ington Academy of Sciences. This action was taken in recognition of Doctor 
Howard’s long and faithful service in our Society and in the cause of science. 

Program: Dr. WALTER CarTER, of the Bureau of Entomology Laboratory 
at Twin Falls, Idaho, Some phases of the sugar-beet leafhopper problem. To 
discuss the sugar-beet leafhopper problem as it is being studied at the present 
time is really to discuss the application of ecology to a problem in economic 
entomology, by which is meant the application of a certain point of view, 
which, when strengthened by the use of a certain technique, permits the de- 
tailed analysis of an insect environment and hence a clearer understanding of 
the insect’s biology. The sugar-beet leafhopper (Hutetix tenellus Baker) lives 
in an environment of short vertical dimension being confined to short-lived 
annuals growing to a height of approximately three feet, or on low-growing 
perennial shrubs. Measurement of the temperature characteristics of this 
environment is possible therefore with relatively few instruments. Records 
of temperature at the soil surface, 6” and 24” above the soil surface, have been 
kept for the last three years. These records have been supplemented by 
records from the standard shade box of Weather Bureau type. For compara- 
tive purposes these standard shade records have been made at six stations 
distributed over the beet-growing area in southcentral Idaho. The usual 
records of humidity and precipitation have been obtained and, in addition, 
solar radiation. data for the year as well as atmometer and soil moisture read- 
ings during the season. 

Biological data have been obtained on the insect populations on the herb 
stratum. A quantitative measure of these populations that is beyond criti- 
cism is yet to be devised but a unit collection of fifty sweeps of a standard net is 
the standard method thus far used. Members of the staff are experimenting 
on samplers of various kinds, devised with a view to obtaining all the insects 
on a measured area of host plant. The objection to this type of sampler lies 


154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 8 


in the fact that relatively very small areas can be included inthe sample. The 
collections taken by sweeping are sorted, the common species counted out, 
' and incidental material also counted and later determined. Further biologi- 
cal data are obtained by recording the growth and development of the insects’ 
host plants. Since these data represent summaries of a great many factors, 
valuable comparative data between seasons can be obtained from this source. 
See in this connection Clements ‘“‘Phytometer Method in Ecology.” Each 
season’s data therefore present a picture of the physical and biotic features of 
the environment. It is true that the picture is complicated and, like some 
other modern art, must be turned upside down in order to be interpreted. 
But to carry the analogy a little further, if the picture has been truly drawn 
and compounded of the best materials available, even the relatively unini- 
tiated can obtain from it the more obvious generalizations while to the 
experienced critic detailed interpretations are possible, not only of the whole 
picture but also of its component parts. 

It may be of interest to discuss briefly some of the uses to which these 
data are being put, in connection with sugar-beet leafhopper studies. In 
connection with prediction of outbreaks of tenellus, a rather definite correla- 
tion appears to exist between certain winter types and tenellus outbreaks the 
following season. Formal “predictions” have been issued for the last three 
beet seasons with the result that losses have been materially reduced in years 
of hopper injury, and acreage increased in the favorable years. The attitude 
of both growers and industry indicates that prediction of outbreaks is an 
established practice in the area in which it has been tried. Soil surface tem- 
peratures are being used in an attempt to predict time of migration. Since 
migration in greater or lesser degree occurs every year, a fairly rapid accumu- 
lation of data is possible. Indications are that it will be feasible to predict 
time of migration with resulting benefit to growers of truck crops who can vary 
somewhat the planting time for those crops. In connection with direct con- 
trol measures against FE. tenellus, the nature of the problem is such that ordi- 
nary contact sprays are ineffectual. A repellent, sprayed on to the beets just 
prior to migration should, on the other hand, offer considerable promise. Pre- 
diction of migration date would probably be of fundamental importance in this 
connection. Since collections are regularly made on a number of tenellus hosts, 
the insects from these collections are used in a study of insect associations. 
A brief discussion of this phase was presented at the Des Moines Meetings 
but without reference there to what is probably a logical and most significant 
inference. These insect associations are composed of a few common species 
and a large number of relatively rare or incidental species. The occasional 
rise of one of these incidental species to the numerical rank of a common spe- 
cies and its subsequent fall to a normal status in the association can frequently 
be related to climatic or weather types, and valuable data obtained on the 
limitations climate imposes on these species. 

Since we are here dealing with indigenous insects, such data have no 
interest for quarantine officers. But data of precisely this same type could be 
obtained for all the insect species against which quarantines are in force by 
the establishment of laboratories in the countries of origin preferably where 
the insect 1n question occupies an incidental, spasmodic or periodic position in 
the association. With such a program the climatic and biologic limitations on 
the insects in question should soon be known and quarantine officers thereby 
enabled to set the boundaries of quarantines on a much more scientific basis 


~ 


APRIL 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 155 


than they are of necessity compelled to use now and will continue to be com- 
pelled to use until data of the type mentioned are available. To return, how- 
ever, to the particular problem in mind. The fact that tenellus is a virus car- 
rier and migrates to sugar beets and other crops from the wild hosts introduces 
into the problem the effect of host-plant successions on the virus of curly top 
transmitted by the insect. No case could more forcibly illustrate the inter- 
dependence of entomology and pathology than this. An insect transmitter of 
a plant disease is here closely associated with a series of wild host plants any 
or all of which must necessarily be considered in connection with the virus. 
When the insect reaches the beet field, factors of the external environment 
influence insect, plant and virus. Agronomic factors also operate here in 
conditioning the plant’s reaction to both insect and virus. The climatological 
data referred to previously can serve all the fields involved especially since the 
instrumentation is mobile enough to permit the taking of records in experi- 
mental plots close to the laboratory. The ecological point of view is essen- 
tially the naturalist’s point of view but in its modern sense the former brings 
to the latter all the benefits that accrue from detailed measurement and the 
substitution of quantitative data for qualitative observation. If in this 
process the value of observation per se is not lost sight of, then the newer view 
point will no doubt add materially to the advancement of biology. (Author’s 
abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Howarp, Poos, Wapiny, Baupur, ALDRICH, 
LARRIMER and ROHWER. 

At request of the President a few words were spoken by Doctor Howarp 
regarding the November Meeting of the Eastern Branch of the American 
Association of Economic Entomologists. Although he referred only to one 
morning’s session he expressed gratification at the presence of some 150 people 
and contrasted it with a meeting of the whole Association, attended 35 years 
ago in nearby Brooklyn at which only 17 individuals were present. 

At request of the President brief remarks also were made by Doctor Camr- 
BELL regarding the Christmas meeting of the A. A. A. 8. at Des Moines, 
Iowa. He enumerated some of the more important papers in both the Ento- 
mological Society of America and the American Association of Economic 
Entomology, discussed the various presidential addresses and described the 
entomological dinner. Greetings to the Washington entomolgists were con- 
veyed from Dr. C. H. RicHarpson now located at Ames, Iowa. Doctor 
Campbell also presented to our society one of his associates Mr. CHARLES 
LUKENS, to whom welcome was extended. 

Dr. J. M. Aupricu presented a note on Haematobia alcis Snow, a dipterous 
parasite of moose, originally described by W. A. SNowin the Canadian Ento- 
mologist, v. 23, pp. 87-89, 1891, from material collected on moose in a cran- 
berry swamp in northern Minnesota 39 years ago, and which just recently has 
been collected by Professor Gaiam of Ann Arbor at Isle Royale, Michigan; 
this being the first reported collection of this species since that of the material 
used in original description. 

Mr. E. V. WaurTsr of the Bureau of Entomology Laboratory at Sas) An- 
tonio, Texas, on invitation also greeted the Society and gave some personal 
impressions of the Des Moines meeting recently attended by him. 

Mr. O. E. Gaum presented a brief note on Linopodes antennaepes Banks, 
amite onmushrooms. Since this mite has apparently never been recorded as 
a pest of cultivated mushrooms heretofore, I thought it might be of interest to 
present a few notes on its occurrence and distribution, together with notes and 


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156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 8 


photographs on the nature of its injury to mushrooms. During March, 1929, 
while inspecting mushroom houses in Pennsylvania, I found a house infested 
with a yellowish colored mite which appeared to be causing damage to the 
mushrooms. As I had never seen this mite before, specimens were collected, 
which were identified by Doctor Ewing as Linopodes antennaepes. Banks 
described this mite in 1915 and made the statement that it was common 
under pieces of wood, bark, etc., which had laid there for sometime. In going 
through the literature no record of its being a mushroom pest could be found. 
While the infestation in the house in Pennsylvania was rather light and no 
serious damage resulted, heavy infestations of this mite resulting in serious 
losses were found during the past summer in mushroom houses at Ashtabula, 
Ohio, Naperville, Illinois, and at St. Paul, Minnesota. In the plant at 
Ashtabula, Ohio, the yield was reduced about # pound per square foot of bed 
space over a range of 375,000 square feet, which constitutes a reduction of 
about 40 per cent in yield. The injury produced by this mite on mushrooms 
is characterized by destruction of the ‘root system’ (so to speak) and by a 
decided constriction at the base of the stalk or stipe as shown in the photo- 
graphs. The ‘root system’ is often so completely devoured that the sporo- 
phore or mushroom is held to the surface of the bed by only a few withered 
filaments. The loss of the ‘root system’ results in small, immature mush- 
rooms which reduce the total yield as well as the price received. The lower 
half of the stalk or stipe is also discolored which lowers the sale value, and in 
extreme cases the mushrooms are not fit for the market and have to be sent to 
cannery. I have not found this mite in any of the Pennsylvania houses this 
season, and just how general the distribution of the mite will become remains 
to be seen; but it will without question be one of the most injurious pests of the 
mushroom industry, in case it becomes general in its distribution. (Author’s 
abstract.) 
Mr. G. G. Arnstrs of the Bureau of Entomology Laboratory at West 

Lafayette, Indiana, also made a few remarks reminiscent of attendance at 
meetings of our Society in years past and spoke appreciatively of some of the 
older men who formerly were members of our Society. 

J.S. Wane, Recording Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Mr. Greorce J. Houau of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture spent four 
weeks last September and October visiting the ruins of archaeological interest 
in Yucatan. He obtained pictures of the ruined cities of Chichen Itza, Uxmal, 
and Chaemultoon. He noted that geologically the peninsula of Yucatan con- 
sists of flat-lying or slightly rolling limestone strata of apparently recent 
formation, and that the low mountain ranges or hills along the west coast 
were formed by a crumpling of the strata, due probably to lateral pressure, as 
no evidence of igneous intrusion was observed. The soil in most places is only 
a few inches deep, and very fertile, but the soft porous underlying limestone 
is partly decomposed to the depth of twelve inches or more. Nearly the 
whole country is covered with a dense almost impenetrable jungle. 





n 

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EPS By eed on Roe 
; OnIGINAL Parers — it a 4 
Chemistry—The islibpetion determination of fluorine ‘by the “age 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
VoL. 20 May 4, 1930 ° No. 9 


{ 


CHEMISTRY.—On the equation for the reaction between invertase 
and sucrose. JOSEPH BERKSON and FRANKLIN HOLLANDER, 
Institute for Biological Research, Johns Hopkins University, and 
the Biological Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New 
York. (Communicated by RayMonp PEARL.) 


The equational representation of the reaction between enzyme and 
subtrate is still a problem requiring definitive solution. Among the 
many forms of mathematical function that have been attempted, none 
has as yet been applied to a sufficient variety of conditions to merit a 
good claim to generality, and furthermore most have suffered from an 
abundance of statistical constants that have rendered their value 
dubious. Under the circumstances any indication that a satisfactory 
function has been found seems exceedingly worth probing. Berkson 
and Flexner (1) have proposed a form of equation which they tested 
exhaustively for the particular case of gelatin and pancreatin with 
high success, and presented a certain amount of evidence that the 
general equation is applicable to other enzymes and subtrates as well. 
In this paper we wish to investigate its applicability to a case for which 
they did not present any results; the splitting of sucrose by invertase. 

When the hydrolysis of sucrose is followed in time by the polariscopic 
method, and the percent of sugar estimated from the angle of rotation 
in the usual way, the function takes the following form 





poe ee are (1) 
1 + Ce 
This may also be written 
K \ 
ee ees a ar i Seer berg’ (la 
} P 











1 Received February 24, 1930. 
157 


158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 9 


in which 
p’ is the percentage of sucrose remaining unhydrolized. 
t is the time after the beginning of the reaction when p’ is 
observed. 
_ K — 100 
100 
kK is a constant representing the asymptotic limits of the 
function. 
r is a rate parameter which is characteristic of any particular 
series of observations. 
e is the Napierian base. 
For the cases to be investigated K can be taken as twice the initial 
value of p’, and we have resulting the simple form (2) 


200 
poe 





We will not here enter into any discussion of the equation per se, 
our immediate problem being only its validity as a quantitative de- 
scription of the reactions to be studied, and since also this ground has 
been covered elsewhere (1), (2). But it is appropriate to note that 
there is only one parameter to be determined from the observations, 
ie., the rate parameter 7, so that the number of “‘arbitrary” statistical | 
constants is reduced to an absolute minimum. 

For any test of the equation to be critical, it is essential that a broad 
variety of experimental conditions be included, and that for each con- 
dition a representative range of the variables be comprehended. Ex- 
periments directed to this end seemed indicated, but in examining the 
literature we found in the published data of Nelson and his associates 
a series for yeast invertase that would serve the immediate purposes 
in hand about as well as any which we could ourselves produce. Ac- 
cordingly, it was decided to use these as the basis of our investigation 
and our plan is to give, summarized, the results of a systematic appli- 
cation of the equation to them. 

The method of procedure in each instance which we will examine 
will be uniform as follows. From the observations as recorded, log. 
200 — p’ 


/ 


will be evaluated for each observed value of p’ and this 


plotted vs. the corresponding value of t. A straight line fitted to these 
points has for its slope r log. e and from this r is determined as ex- 


MAY 4, 1930 INVERTASE-SUCROSE EQUATION 159 


plained by Reed and Berkson (3). The parameter so evaluated will 
be written into equation (2) and the theoretical value of p’ calculated 
for each value of ¢ at which an observation was recorded. The good- 
ness of fit will be expressed as the standard deviation, i.e., the root 
mean square of the deviations of calculated from observed values, and 
also as the coefficient of variation, i.e., the ratio of the s.d. to the 
mean p’. | 


I. A TYPICAL FIT FOR A USUAL REACTION 


The fit to a usual case taken from Nelson and Hitchcock (4) is pre- 
sented in detail in Table 1 and Figures 1 and 2. 


200 





450 Slope =f (00.2 =JI//O62 x /0OF 
r=/23686 x/0~’ 


400 


Lag 22 


O50 


200'— 


50 100 1/50 200 250 JOC 
L-Ptrhulés 


200 — p’ 





Fig. 1. Log. —— vs. t, from Table 1 
P 


The equation for example I becomes (3) 


200 


p= ETRE ee ee ae ee (3) 
1 +e 


As can be seen from Table 1 and the corresponding graphs there is a 
satisfactory agreement between the observed values of p’ and those 
calculated from the equation. Similar calculations for other experi- 


ments some of which are included in subsequent sections of this paper 
all show a comparably satisfactory agreement. 


160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 9 


II. VARIATION IN ENZYME CONCENTRATION 


For a study of the influence of enzyme concentration on the applica- 
bility of equation (2), it is obviously sufficient to compare but two 


TABLE 1. A Usvat Yeast INVERTASE REACTION 
NELSON AND HITCHCOCK (4), PAGE 2633. EXPERIMENTS B9 AND B10. 


Sucrose concentration, 10 gm. per 100 c.c. Invertase 1, concentration 6.080 c.c. 
per 100 c.c. Temperature 25°C. 


a "means observed log. ee p’ p’ menegt >: from (8) 
0 0.000 100.000 0.000 100.00 
4) 3.056 96.944 0.027 96.91 
10 6.291 93.709 0.055 93.82 
15 9.347 90.653 0.081 90.75 
22 13.709 86.291 0.120 86.48 
30 18.516 81.484 0.163 81.66 
60 35. 460 64.540 0.322 64.51 
90 50.415 49.585 0.482 49.46 
120 62.819 37.181 0.641 36.96 
180 80.356 19.644 0.963 19.48 
300 94.481 5.919 1.547 4.78 
2-4 days 100.000 0.000 0.00 





S. D! = 0.25%. C. of V. = 0.41%. 


1/00 


% 
S 


g 


© Observed 
— lolculated from Lg (PD 


ent Sucrose Lert 
s eg e@ a 


~ DEC. 
w& 
Ss 


/ 





Dp 


S 
! 


! | ! 
oO £0 400 150 200 250 J00 
C-PUPLUES 


Fig. 2. Graphical presentation of fit for example I 


typical experiments, provided these two cases differ sufficiently to in- 
clude a wide range in concentration. In experiments B60, 61 and 


may 4, 1930 INVERTASE-SUCROSE EQUATION 161 


B62 of Nelson and Hitchcock (4), two series are available in which the 
concentrations are 6 and 0.5 cc. per 100 cc. respectively. This is as 
great a variation in this factor as can be found in the literature. That 
equation (2) fits both of these is apparent from Table 2. The relation 
between r and concentration will be discussed below. 


III. VARIATION IN SUBTRATE CONCENTRATION 


Inclusion of the initial sucrose concentration as a variable has been 
a major difficulty in every effort to obtain a universal equation de- 


TABLE 2. Extremes oF INVERTASE CONCENTRATION 
NELSON AND HITCHCOCK (4), PAGE 2641. SUCROSE AND TEMPERATURE AS IN TABLE 1 


Experiment number..... B60 and Bél B62 
Concentration of inver- 
CDSE ch eee ieekae eee ee 6 c.c. per 100 c.c. 0.5 c.c. per 100 c.c. 
200 — p’ 
r, from log. aercT: vs. t 0.0456796 0.00371204 
. , p' % : ’ p' % 
pen seottel os wv 2 Eval, ebeeed Gee 
0 100.00 100.00 0 100.00 | 100.00 
5 88. 25 88.62 60 88.55 88.91 
10 tients 77.54 120 77.69 78.09 
15 66.82 67.01 180 67.60 67.78 
Za 55.37 55.39 202 56.32 56.37 
28 43.62 43.53 336 44.93 | 44.64 
37 31.16 31.13 444 S240 32.27 
: 52 16.74 17.00 624 18.46 17.96 
70 7.89 7.84 840 9.20 8.47 
1-7 days 0.00 0.00 | 11 days 0.00 0.00 
So, Wb AS se 0.20% 0.37% 
C5 Ol Soe ae ee ie 0.41% 0.75% 


scribing the hydrolysis of sucrose by invertase. In order to test the 
applicability of the logistic function in this respect a series of experi- 
ments were chosen from the investigation of Nelson and Vosburgh (5) 
in which the substrate concentration was varied from 0.4 g. to 20 g. 
per 100 cc. of solution. The fits of equation (2) to these experiments 
are given in Table 3. 

The fits for these experiments of Nelson and Vosburgh are seen to be 


162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 9 





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NOILVULNAONOD ASOUING NI NOILVIUVA “E ATAVL 


MAY 4, 1930 INVERTASE-SUCROSE EQUATION 163 


good and, considering the size of the standard deviation, comparable 
with experiments utilizing 10% sucrose. However, while the range 
in variation of substrate concentration is fairly wide, the individual 
experiments are carried only to a point of about 30% hydrolysis. It. 
is desirable to test the equation for comparable cases in which the 
hydrolysis has continued more nearly to completion. For this pur- 
pose three experiments in the series of Nelson and Vosburgh (5) in 
which the observations were continued up to within 95% hydrolysis 
are included here and given in Table 4. 


TABLE 4. VARIATION IN SUCROSE CONCENTRATION 
NELSON AND VOSBURGH (5), PAGE 794 


Experiment number..... 3 8 13 


Sucrose concentration...| 5 gm. per 100 c.c. | 10 gm. per 100 c.c.| 20 gm. per 100 c.c. 





200 — p’ 
r,from log. — Eye dl = 2000162790 0.003611 000347690 

p' % p’ % pn’ % p’ % : p' % 
Prt: ja | ERIS ar pb. | caleu- | ¢ min, | 2’ % ob-| caleu- 
Se served Res a ve served es i pared ae) 
0 |100.00|100.00/ 0 /100.00/100.00 0 /100.00 |100.00 
12 | 89.95} 90.26; 20 | 91.69) 91.71; 55 | 90.28 | 90.47 
24 | 79.90) 80.71) 45 | 81.31} 81.51} 125 | 78.16 | 78.60 
51 | 60.18} 60.72) 105 | 58.83) 58.92) 250 | 58.49 | 59.08 
85 | 40.07} 40.08) 175 | 37.89) 37.84) 392 | 40.20 | 40.75 
130 | 21.65) 21.50) 265 | 19.91) 19.89) 636 | 19.95 | 19.75 
234 4.90} 4.34) 450 | 5.15) 4.63) 1850 | 3.927) 1.81 
00 0.00} 0.00; © 0.00; 0.00) © - 0.00 | 0.00 

SMM ee 0.42% 0.20% 0.36% 

O, of ee eeaeaas 0.85% 0.41% 0.66% 





@ Omitted in calculation of S. D. 


IV. VARIATION IN TEMPERATURE 


Nelson and Hitchcock (4) give data from the experiments of Vos- 
burgh and Nelson in which the temparature was varied. The fits of 
equation (2) to these are presented in Table 5. 


Vv. A SPECIAL CASE OF “ABNORMAL” INVERTASE 


Nelson and Hitchcock (4) give data for reactions with invertase 
which they call ‘abnormal’ by virtue of a criterion employed by them. 
The fit of equation (2) to one of these is given in Table 6. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 9 


164 





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MAY 4, 1930 INVERTASE-SUCROSE EQUATION 165 


The sample of invertase used in the above experiment was one which 
Nelson and Hollander (7) found to undergo destruction during the 
course of the reaction. It is to be noted that the standard deviation of 
observed values of p’ from those calculated from (2) isin this instance 
significantly greater than in the typical case as exemplified in Table 2. 
Other experiments with this sample of invertase are shown in Table 8. 


The survey presented above is taken to demonstrate that an equa- 
tion of form (2) gives a good quantitative description of the course of 
reaction between sucrose and yeast invertase. The deviations of the 


TABLE 6. A Case or “‘ABNORMAL”’ INVERTASE 


NELSON AND HITCHCOCK (4) PAGE 2643. EXPERIMENTS B12 — 15. SUCROSE AND 
TEMPERATURE AS IN TABLE 1 
200 — p’ 
_Invertase 3, conc. 1.905 c.c. per 100 c.c. 1, from log. eater vs. t = 0.0120745 


, 


t min. p’ % observed p’ % calculated from (2) 
0 100.00 100.00 
9) 96.80 96.98 
10 93.65 93.77 
15 90.56 90.97 
22 86.395 86.79 
30 81.54 82.08 
60 65.04 65. 28 
90 50.62 50.45 
120 38.52 38.03 
180 21.19 20.43 
300 6.42 5.20 
0.00 0.00 


S.D. = 0.51%. C. of V. = 0.85%. 


quantities observed from those estimated by it are small in all cases, 
small enought to warrant the conclusion that basically the reaction 
follows this equation. However, there is in the deviations a feature 
calling for further comment. Whereas they are nowhere large, there 
is in every case a notable progression in their character. This takes 
such a form that if the equation be fitted to the early observations, 
the later observations expressed as per cent substrate left tend to 
overshoot the estimates made from the equation. The deviations at 
first increase and then decline, the observed and calculated quantities 


166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 9 


approaching each other as the reaction nears completion. In all the 
reactions studied this characteristic can be discerned, but it is more 
marked in some than in others. We conclude from these facts that the 
equation (2) is not the completely correct one for all reactions between 
invertase and sucrose, but that subsidiary small corrections varying in 
amount with different conditions must be made to render it so. What 
mathematical form will best represent these corrections we are not 
ourselves decided. Thismuch however may be advanced. The devia- 
/ 
tions in question are manifested in the graphs of log. ont vs.tas a 
small but perceptible curvature concave towards the ¢ axis, i.e., the 
slope of this function decreases as ¢ increases. ‘To show this we have 


\ 
cay 





Stope of log 2B ys ¢ estimated/0* 


100 200 300 400 200 J00 
C-/717nules 7-7minules 
, 


200 — 
Fig. 3. Slope of log. P vs. tas estimated graphically, vs. t. Example I left, 





example VI right. 


estimated the slope for different values of t by a graphical method and 
in Figure 3 the estimates so obtained are shown as smooth curves 
against ¢t for the experiments of examplesI and VI. Nowif the logistic 
function (2) held strictly, these slopes should be constant, and, if they 
were subject only to random experimental variation, they should vary 
normally about some mean value. The fact that they decrease pro- 
gressively may be accounted for by a progressive decrease of r. What 
the chemical mechanism of the reduction is, one can not say from an 
examination of these experimental results alone. But whatever its 
cause, quantitatively its effect is small as is shown by the fact that the 
values of p’ approximate closely the values calculated from (2) which 
assumes 7 constant. 


MAY 4, 1930 INVERTASE-SUCROSE EQUATION 167 


RELATIONSHIP OF THE RATE PARAMETER 7, AND OTHER VARIABLES 


If equation (2) is really definitive of the reaction between yeast in- 
vertase and sucrose the one parameter in it which, by hypothesis, can 
change, should bear a regular relationship to conditions which affect the 
reaction, i.e., r should be a function of the variables which measure 
such conditions. 

In the experiments available here it is possible to examine the rela- 
tionship for concentration of enzyme, concentration of substrate, and 
temperature. ‘These will be presented briefly seriatim in graphic form. 


I. CONCENTRATION OF INVERTASE 


In the series of data given by Nelson and Hitchcock (4) two are 
available for testing the relationship of r to concentration of invertase. 





SSbBGa 


rx/0%-per mir. 


“6 ~G FG aN ® Lo 


4 J 4 
lnvertase - C6 per l00CC. 


Fig. 4. r vs. concentration of invertase, from Table 7 


In Tables 7 and 8 the fits of equation (2) to these data are presented 
in the same way as for the examples given above. In Figures 4 and 
5 the r’s obtained from these fits are shown plotted vs. the concentra- 
tion of invertase. 

It is seen that a relationship of constant proportionality exists be- 
tween r and concentration of invertase. This is in agreement with the 
findings of Berkson and Flexner for other enzymes (6). 


II. CONCENTRATION OF SUCROSE 


In the experiments of Nelson and Vosburgh given in Table 4 above, 
the conditions were identical except for concentration of sucrose. 
Below in Figure 6 is shown graphically the variation of r with concen- 
tration of sucrose. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 9 


168 





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MAY 4, 1930 INVERTASE-SUCROSE EQUATION 169 


TABLE 8. VARYING CONCENTRATIONS OF INVERTASE 


NELSON AND HITCHCOCK (4), PAGE 2650. SUCROSE CONCENTRATION, 10 GM. PER 100 c.c. 
TEMPERATURE 37° 








Experiment number... B58 and Bd9 B54 and Bd5 B56 and Bd7 
Invertase 3, concen- 
NEMUOTOW cic) cg Side si 0.5 c.c. per 100 c.c. 3c.c. per 100 c.c. | 6c¢.c. per 100 c.c. 
0-—p’ 
r, from log. ; Z vs. t 0.00290853 0.0182852 0.0365855 
D 
¢ min. ie ig calcu ¢ min fe cale ¢ min. ene caleu 
served pat served puate oy) served f aie 


0 |100.00)100.00 0 |100.00)100.00; 0 |100.00)100.00 

60 90.92) 91.30 | 10 | 90.56; 90.88) 6 | 88.72) 89.07 

120 82.20} 82.72 | 20 | 81.66) 81.92) 12 | 77.98) 78.39 
195 72.05) 72.38 | 30 | 73.12) 73.24) 18 | 67.95} 68.21 
270 62.55) 62.64 | 45 | 61.13) 61.03} 26 | 55.73) 55.73 
360 52.58} 51.96 | 70 | 44.09) 43.51) 35 | 43.62) 43.49 
450 43.44) 42.54 | 100 | 28.31] 27.68) 48 | 29.67) 29.46 
540 35.67| 34.43 | 120 | 20.77; 20.05} 65 | 17.03) 16.97 
1101 10.92) 7.824) 150 | 12.88) 12.10} 85 | 8.72) 8.54 
7-12 days | 0.00) 0.00 co | 0.00) 0.00) 2 | 0.00; 0.00 


&, De eee 0.60% 0.45% 0.21% 
%. of a rere 1.00% 0.88% 0.44% 


* Omitted in lions S.D. 


¥0 


5 


+ x /0°- per rte. 
8 


S 





2 3 ¥ 5 
fnvertase -C.C. per /O0CE. 


Fig. 5. r vs. concentration of invertase, from Table 8 


170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 9 


III. TEMPERATURE 


In the experiments of Nelson and Hitchcock presented in Table 5 
above, temperature alone was varied. Below in Figure 7 is shown the 
variation or r with temperature as indicated by these experiments. 


5 


r x/0%-per rin. 


(7) ST 4/0 IS 2o 
Sucrose-git. per 100 Ec. 


Fig. 6. r vs. concentration of sucrose, from example III 


S 


+ x/0%-per 71n 
~N BEY D®N ®% & BS 





Ss 


x i JO 15 20 25 GO IST 


Temperature ~Deg. C. 


Fig. 7. r vs. temperature, from example IV 


SUMMARY 


1. The course of the reaction between sucrose and yeast invertase 
can be quantitatively described under representative conditions of 


MAY 4, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Wa! 


temperature, concentration of enzyme, and concentration of substrate 
200 


1 + ert | 
maining unhydrolized, ¢t is the time after the beginning of the reaction 
when p’ is observed, r is arate parameter which is characteristic of any 
particular series of observations, and e is the Napierian base. 

2. The relation between the rate parameter r of the above equation 
and concentration of invertase is linear; the correlation line passes 
through the zero origin, resulting in a constancy of the ratio of con- 
centration to r. 

3. The parameter r changes regularly with concentration of sucrose; 
the correlation is a non-linear. 

4. The parameter r changes regularly with temperature; the correla- 
tion is non-linear. 


by the function p’ = » where p’ is the percentage of sucrose re- 


REFERENCES 


1. Berxson, J. and Fuexner, L. B. On the rate of reaction between enzyme and sub- 
strate. Jour. Gen. Phys., 11: 433-457. 1928. 

2. Resp, L. J. and Berkson, J. The application of the logistic function to experimental 
data. Jour. Phys. Chem., 33: 760-779. 1929. 

3. Reep, L. J.and Berkson, J. Idem, 767. 

4. Newtson, J. M. and Hircucocr, D. I. Uniformity in invertase action. Jour. Amer. 
Chem. Soc. 48: 2632-55. 1921. 

5. Newson, J. M. and VospuraH, W.C. Kinetics of invertase action. Jour. Amer. Chem. 
Soc. 39: 790-811. 1917. 


6. Berkson, J. and Fiexner, L.B. Idem, Appendix. 


7. Neuson, J. M. and Houuanpmr, F. Uniformity in invertase action. Jour. Biol. 
Chem. 58: 291-304. 1923. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Dr. Letanp Ossian Howarp, on the nomination of the Entomological 
Society of Washington, has been elected an Honorary Member of the Wasu- 
INGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. This action was taken in recognition of his 
distinguished contributions to entomology, his intimate connection with 
scientists and scientific work in Washington, and especially for his services 
to the AcADEMY as member and officer since its foundation. 


The First International Congress on Mental Hygiene will convene in 
Washington on May 5. Sessions will continue until noon, May 10. Sessions 
of general interest will be held in the evenings at Constitution Hall, Eighteenth 
and D streets, NW. The President of the Congress is Dr. Wiuutam A. 
Wuirte, Superintendent of St. Elizabeths Hospital; the Secretary-General is 
CuirrorD W. Beers, founder of the mental-hygiene movement; Dr. FRANK- 
woop #. WiuuraMs is Chairman of the Committee on Program; THoMAs W. 
Lamont is Treasurer. 

At the same time and place as the International Congress will be held the 
annual meetings of the American Psychiatric Association and the American 
Association for the Study of the Feebleminded. 


172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 9 


Prof. W. G. Woo.tnoueH, Geological Adviser to the Commonwealth 
Government of Australia, is spending several months in the United States 
for the purpose of observing American methods and practices in the pe- 
troleum industry and in the administration and technique of official surveys. 


An impromptu gathering of geologists at the Geological Survey on April 18 
was addressed by Dr. G. 8. HuME, geologist in charge of oil and gas investi- 
gations of the Geological Survey of Canada, on The geological structure of 
Turner Valley, Alberta; by E. E. L. Drxon, Esq., of the Geological Survey of 
Great Britain, on Dolomitization and the development of chert; and by Prof. 
W. G. WootnovuaH, Geological Adviser to the Commonwealth Government 
of Australia, on Major structural features of Australia. 





Obituary 


Commander AsapH HALL, Corps of Professors of Mathematics, U.S. Navy, 
died, after a brief illness, on January 12, 1930. He was a resident of Upper 
Darby, Pennsylvania, at the time of his death and was engaged in post- 
retirement astronomical work at the Flower Observatory. Professor Hall 
was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on October 6, 1859; received his A.B. 
at Harvard in 1882, and his Ph.D. at Yale in 1889. Brought up amidst 
astronomical surroundings, he began his astronomical career as an assist- 
ant at the United States Naval Observatory, whence, after three years, 
he proceeded to the Yale Observatory as an assistant, and thence to the 
University of Michigan Observatory as Director. In 1908, he was com- 
missioned in the Corps of Professors of Mathematics of the United States 
Navy and was assigned to the Naval Observatory for duty. There he took - 
charge of the great telescope of that institution, the same instrument with 
which his distinguished father of the same name discovered the satellites of 
Mars. After his formal retirement as an officer on the active list of the Navy 
in 1923, he was continued on active duty at the Naval Observatory until 
June 30, 1929. Professor Hall was widely known for his work in connection 
with the satellites of the planets. His latest published work appears in 
Volume XII, Part I, Publications of the U. 8. Naval Observatory, which 
contains the results of his observations on the great equatorial from 1908 to 
1926. 


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ie ae OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS 


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ANNOUNCEMENTS or Mrntines 










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Corresponding Secretary: L. B. Tuckerman, Bureau of Standards. 
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OE easurer: HENRY c: Avens, Co and ae: Survey. 


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. Chemistry—On the equation for the, Fone tins eae invertase” and § 
2 Josnra Brrxson and FRANKLIN HOULANDER.....2.eeeeces este y s 


wt _ ScIENTIFIC Notes AND pale 
7 ‘ OBITUARY: ASAPH RAIS ade th ass Sos Sage 


Ss re ” 
i 3 


This Yount. fs indered in th Infarntional index fo Periodicals tobe found in 








Bon 20 oe May 19, 1930 No. 10 





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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
W ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Vou. 20 May 19, 1930 No. 10 


BOTANY .—dHaitian mosses collected by EH. C. Leonard! R. 8S. Wit- 
tiams, New York Botanical Garden. (Communicated by WIL- ° 
LiAM R. Maxon. 


The following list enumerates some 75 species of mosses obtained 
in the Republic of Haiti by E. C. Leonard in November and December 
1925 and January and February 1926, at elevations ranging from near 
sea-level to about 1,200 meters, also two species collected in the 
Dominican Republic by W. L. Abbott in 1922. About half the speci- 
mens were in fruit. A portion were determined by Mrs. E. G. Britton. 


FIsSIDENS ACICULARIS C. M. Near Marmelade, 800 m., on limestone 
(8085). Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, 350 m., on soil (7586). This species 
has previously been attributed only to Brazil. The specimens are all sterile 
but seem to belong here. 

FISsSIDENS GARBERI L. & J. Near Dondon, about 400 m., on roots (8690a). 

FISSIDENS KEGELIANUS C. M. Near Port au Prince, about sea-level, on 
damp soil (10112). This with two exceptions is the only moss collected 
near sea-level. 

FIssIDENS MOLLIS Mitt, Near Caye-la-Croix, about 700 m., on damp soil 
(7934); det. E.G. B. Near Marmelade, about 800 m. (8190). 

DICRANELLA HERMINIERI Besch. Near Plaisance, about 400 m., on clay 
bank (9367); det E. G. B. 

CAMPYLOPUS ANGUSTIRETIS (Aust.) L. & J. Near Marmelade, about 800 
m., on rotten stump (8234). This species previously credited only to Florida 
and fruiting specimens still unknown. 

LEUCOBRYUM ANTILLARUM Schp. Near Marmelade, about 800 m., on 
rotten log (8290) and in thicket (8218). Near Plaisance, about 400 m., on 
soil(G3so1); det. hi, GiB. 

OcTOBLEPHARUM ALBIDUM (L.) Hedw. On rotten log, near St. Michel de 
l Atalaye, 350 m. (7486). On tree, near Caye-la-Croix, about 700m. (7885). 
On rotten log near Marmelade, about 800 m. (8283). 


1 Received March 17, 1930. 
173 


174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 10 


WEISIA VIRIDULA AMBLYODON (Brid.) Bry. Eur. On damp soil near Plai- 
sance, about 400 m. (9704). Appears to be this variety or very near it. 

TRICHOSTOMUM JAMAICENSE (Mitt.) Jaeg. On damp walls near Dondon, 
about 400 m. (8613 and 8629a). Near Ennery, 825-900 m., on earth and 
damp rock (9028 and 9099); det E. G. B. 

HyYoPHILA TORTULA (Schwaegr.) Hpe. On limestone soil and rock near 
St. Michel de l’Atalaye, about 350 m. (7045 and 8466). 

BARBULA AGRARIA (Sw.) Brid. Onlimestone, near St. Michel de ]’Atalaye, 
350 m. (7120, 7234, 7783); det. E. G. B. Near Dondon, 400 m. (8716b). 
Near Ennery, 325-900 m. (8945, also 9052); det. E.G. B. All on limestone. 

BARBULA CRUGERI Sond. On damp lime-soil, near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, 
about 350 m. (7042a). 

_  BARBULA SUBULIFOLIA Sull. Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, on wet rocks, 
about 350 m. (7805). 

TORTELLA CAESPITOSA (Schwaegr.) Limpr. On base of tree near Marme- 
lade, about 800 m. (8337). Near Ennery on stumps, 325-900 m. (9451a). 

FUNARIA CALVESCENS Schwaegr. Near Ennery on damp soil, 325-900 m. 
(9469). On burnt stump, same locality, (9451) and near St. Michel de I’ 
Atalaye about 350 m., on damp wall of limestone (7138). 

SPLACHNOBRYUM OBTUSUM (Brid.) C. M. Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye 
on lime-soil, 350 m. (7044). 


BryYUM ANDICOLA Hook. Near Ennery on damp soil, 350-900 m. (9017). 

BRYUM CORONATUM Schwaegr. Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, about 350 
m., on rotten wood (8023 and 7508). Near Caye-la-Croix, about 700 m., 
erevice in coral rock (7966); det. E. G. B. 


Bryum leonardi Williams, sp. nov. 
Fig. A, 1-6. 


Evidently dioicous: growing in dark green, rather loose tufts with weak 
stems 10-12 mm. long, radiculose below and often bearing very short branches; 
leaves distant, often decurrent, not imbricate, more or less plicate and much 
contorted when dry, when moist widely spreading, often slightly recurved, 
the upper stem-leaves about 1.75 mm. long, broadly obovate, bordered all 
around and serrulate about one-third the way down; costa in upper leaves 
mostly slightly excurrent into a short apiculus; lowest stem-leaves mostly 
very small, obtuse, entire, with costa vanishing well below apex; median 
leaf-cells more or less hexagonal, from scarcely elongate to about twice longer 
than wide, up to 12-16u wide by 25-30u long, with thin walls, the basal cells 
becoming rectangular and much longer than those above; leaf-borders slightly 
browner than within, of mostly about 3 rows of very narrow, elongate cells 
with walls somewhat thickened; archegonial flowers with outer leaves much 
like those of upper stem but with longer, narrower base and more numerous 
rectangular cells, the inner leaves very small, rather lanceolate, more or less 
serrulate and costate; archegonia 8-10, with 12-15 filiform paraphyses; 
fruit unknown. 


Hartt: Vicinity of Dondon, at about 400 meters, on damp wall, E. C. 
Leonard, Jan. 7, 1926 (8629b). 


MAY 19, 1930 WILLIAMS: HAITIAN MOSSES 


Ses 


ia ay 
a acs 


AL 
‘onan! 


i ie 
= € 
S 














Figure A.—1-6, Bryum leonardi Williams, sp. nov. 


1, Moistened plant, about natural 
size. 


2, Outer and inner perichaetial leaves, etc., about X 30. 38, Median leaf-cells, 
xX 180. 4, Upper stem-leaf, about X 30. 5, Border one-half way down leaf, X 180. 6, 


Apex of stem-leaf, X 180. 7-10, Renauldia subpilifera Williams, sp. nov. 
about natural size. 


10, Alar cells, X 180. 


7, Plant, 
8, Median leaf-cells, X 280. 9, Upper stem-leaf, about X 180. 


176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 10 


This species seems to be nearest the Brazilian B. ocdiloma, but the border 
is narrower, the leaves are rather larger and more strongly serrulate, and the 
inner perichaetial leaves are lanceolate-acute. 


RHODOBRYUM SWARTZIANUM (C. M.) Par. Near Ennery, on damp soil, 
325-900 m. (9122 and 9131); det. E. G. B. 

PHILONOTIS GRACILLIMA Angstr. Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, on damp 
soil and limestone, about 350 m. (7018). 

PHILONOTIS SPHAERICARPA (Sw.) Brid. Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, on 
lime-soil, 350 m. (7043 and 7551). Near Plaisance, about 400 m. (9396); 
det. E. G. B. 

PHILONOTIS TENELLA (C. M.) Besch. Near Caye-la-Croix, on clay-bank, 
700 m. (7884). Near Plaisance, on damp soil, 400 m. (9398a). 

ERPODIUM DOMINGENSE (Brid.) C. M. Near Gros Morne, about 235 m., 
on soil and roots of trees (9871, 9883, and 9891). 

MACROMITRIUM HUSNOTI Schp. Near Marmelade, on tree, about 800 
m. (8372). 

MAcROMITRIUM MUCRONIFOLIUM (Hook. & Grev.) Schwaegr. Near En- 
nery, 325-900 m., on damp wood (9133); det. E. G. B. 

MAcCROMITRIUM SCHWANECKEANUM Hpe. Near Laguna, Dominican Re- 
- public, 100 to 500 m., chiefly on Pilén de Azticar (A bbott 23314). 

MAcROMITRIUM TUMIDULUM Mitt. Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, on rotten 
log, about 350 m. (7507). 

RHACOPILUM TOMENTOSUM (Sw.) Brid. Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, on 
limestone, 350 m. (7487). Near Dondon, on tree and soil, 400 m. (8543 and 
8609a). Near Plaisance, on rotten log, 400 m. (9216c). Near Caye-la-Croix, 
on rock, about 700 m. (7999); det. E. G. B. 

ACROCRYPHAEA COFFEAE (C. M.) Par. Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, 350 
m., on tree (7244a). 

PSEUDOCRYPHAEA FLAGELLIFERA (Brid.) E. G. Britton. Near Caye-la- 
Croix, about 700 m., on tree (7899a). 


Renauldia subpilifera Williams, sp. nov. 
Fig. A, 7-10. 


Inflorescence unknown: Plants with wiry, trailing stems bearing a few more 
or less erect, flexuous, distant, scarcely branching secondary stems, 4-5 em. 
long with few or no branches and scattered, often scarcely evident tufts of 
radicles; leaves from a heart-shaped base, ratner short-ovate, the blade about 
1.5 mm. long and 1 mm. wide, entire or mostly so, concave, ecostate, the 
margins above incurved, rather gradually narrowed into a hair-like apiculus 
up to about one-fifth of length of entire leaf; cells of leaf very uniform to near 
base, the median about 30u long and 4—5u wide, with unequally thickened and 
slightly pitted walls, the alar cells forming a very distinct, convex, brownish 
cluster. 


Dominican RepPuBLic: Polo, Prov. de Barahona, 600-1200 meters, Feb. 
26-—March 12, 1922 (Abbott 1879c). 


MAY 19, 1930 WILLIAMS: HAITIAN MOSSES 177 


Nearest R. cochlearifolia of Mexico, but much less branched, the leaves 
with much longer points, the alar cells forming a more distinct cluster and 
cells above with much more irregularly thickened walls. 

PIREELLA CYMBIFOLIA (Sull.) Card. Near Caye-la-Croix, on shaded rock, 
about 700 m. (7991). Near Marmelade, in thicket, about 800 m. (8271). 

PTEROBRYUM ANGUSTIFOLIUM (C. M.) Mitt. Near Dondon, on shrub, 
about 400 m. (8744). 

PAPILLARIA NIGRESCENS (Sw.) Jaeg. The most abundantly collected of 
any of the species, growing on both trees and rocks, being represented by 14 
packets: Dondon (8544, 8670, 8689); Caye-la-Croix (7871la, 7894); Ennery 
(9155); Marmelade (8126a, 8268); Pilate (9603); Plaisance (9212, 9230, 
9252a, 9257); St. Michel del’ Atalaye (8463). The elevations run from 325 m. 
at Pilate to 800 m. at Marmelade. 

METEORIOPSIS PATULA (Sw.) Broth. Near Marmelade, on shrubs, 800 m. 
(8383). Near Ennery, 325-900 m. (8994, 9112a); det. E. G. B. 

PHYLLOGONIUM FULGENS (Sw.) Brid. Near Ennery, on rock, 325-900 m. 
(9140); det. E. G. B. 

CALYPTOTHECIUM MORITzII (Hpe.) Broth. Near Marmelade, on rock, 
800 m. (8280). Not before credited to the West Indies. 

NECKEROPSIS UNDULATA (Palis.) Hedw. Near Caye-la-Croix, on tree, 
about 700 m. (7899). Near Plaisance, on tree, about 400 m. (9256). 

PINNATELLA MINUTA (Mitt.) Broth. Near Dondon, on rock, about 400 
me (8702). 

CYCLODICTYON ALBICANS (Sw.) Broth. Near Caye-la-Croix, about 700 m.,. 
on rock (7880 and 7881). 

CALLICOSTELLA COLOMBICA Williams, Bryologist 28: 61. 1925. Near 
Ennery, on limestone, 325-900 m. (9024). Specimen sterile but appar- 
ently this. 

CALLICOSTELLA DEPRESSA (Sw.) Jaeg. Near Plaisance, on rock, 400 m. 
(9187); det. E. G. B. 

CALLICOSTELLA SUBFISSIDENTOIDES Broth. Near Port au Prince, on damp 
soil, near sea level (10099). 

LEPIDOPILUM AMPLIRETE (Sull.) Mitt. Near Marmalade, about 800 m., 
on rock (8385). 

CROSSOMITRIUM SINTENISII C. M. Near Ennery, 325-900 m. (9141); 
det. E.G. B. 

HELICODONTIUM CAPILLARE (Sw.) Jaeg. Near Ennery, 325-900 m., on 
tree (9548a). Near Plaisance, about 400 m., on tree (9209); det. E. G. B. 

HELICODONTIUM TENUIROSTRE Schwaegr. Near Dondon, on rotten wood, 
about 400 m. (8725). 

HAPLODONTIUM MICROPHYLLUM (Sw.) Broth. Near Pilate, on rock, about 
325 m. (9632). 

THUIDIUM ACUMINATUM Mitt. Near Ennery, on damp bank and stump, 
325-900 m. (9132 and 9149); det. E. G. B. 

THUIDIUM INVOLVENS (Hedw.) Mitt. Near Marmelade, on rock, about 
800 m. (8171). Near Dondon, on rock, about 400 m. (8724). 

THUIDIUM URCEOLATUM Lorentz. Near Marmelade, on rock and rotten 
log, about 800 m. (8274 and 8282). 

BRACHYTHECIUM STEREOPOMA (Spruce) Jaeg. Near Dondon, about 400 
m., on damp wall (8628). Near Pilate, 325 m., on damp soil (9639). 





178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 10 


RHYNCHOSTEGIUM SERRULATUM (Hedw.) Jaeg. Near Ennery, 350-900 m., 
on rotten log (9001b). Near Dondon, about 400 m. (8609). Near Plaisance, 
about 400 m. (9253). Near Marmelade, about 800 m. (8091). The last 
specimen is perhaps a variety of R. serrulatum, having broader, shorter- 
pointed, and more strongly serrulate leaves, with the outer leaves of the flower- 
buds broadly rounded or very obtuse. It may prove a distinct species. 

OXYRRHYNCHIUM CLINOCARPUM (Tayl.) Broth. Near Ennery, on damp 
banks, 325-900 m. (9535a). The first record for the West Indies. 

ERYTHRODONTIUM CYLINDRICAULE (C. M.) C. M. Near Caye-la-Croix, 
on mango tree, about 700 m. (7894a). Near Ennery 325-900 m. (9523). 

ENTODON BEYRICHII (Schwaegr.) C. M. Near Caye-la-Croix, on rock, 
about 700 m. (7999a); det. E. G. B. Near Ennery, on rock, 325-900 m. 
(9048) ; det. E. G. B. 

ENTODON MACROPODUS (Hedw.) Mitt. Another abundantly collected 
moss of this list, growing on rocks and wood: Near Dondon (8669); Ennery 
(8996); Marmelade (8126, 8174 and 8195); Pilate (9609); Plaisance (9246); 
St. Michel de l’Atalaye (8467). The elevations range from 325 to 800 meters. 

STEREOPHYLLUM CULTELLIFORME (Sull.) Mitt. Near Plaisance, 400 m., 
on rock (9374); det. E. G. B. 

STEREOPHYLLUM LEUCOSTEGUM (Brid.) Mitt. Near St. Michel de I’ 
Atalaye, on trees and rotten wood, about 350 m. (7240, 7259, 7488, 7748, 
7749, 7749a, 8023b, 8488 and 8493). 

STEREOPHYLLUM RADICULOSUM (Hook.) Mitt. Near Dondon, on tree 
(8546). Near Plaisance, on tree (9256a). Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, on 
rotten wood (7485 and 8023a). 


Pilosium serrulatum Williams, sp. nov. 
Fig. B 


Autoicous, the male flowers with about 4 large antheridia (some 0.35 mm. 
long) and a few filiform paraphyses, enclosed by rather broadly lanceolate 
leaves minutely serrulate at apex: plants growing in loose, glossy green mats, 
the stems (up to 4 em. high) with few radicles, bearing short, irregularly 
placed, complanate branches; stem-leaves complanate, ecostate, the lateral 
spreading-incurved, about 1. 5 mm. long and 0.65 mm. wide, not quite sym- 
metric, rather ovate, the apex broadly acute and minutely serrulate:; leaves 
on upper side of stem for the most part slightly smaller and symmetric: leaf- 
cells elongate to near base, the median very narrow, about 4u wide by 100u 
long or more, the basal cells in lateral leaves broad, 20- —25u wide, more or less 
rectangular and usually much more numerous on one side of the base than on 
the other, in the leaves on upper side of stem these basal cells often scarcely 
present; archegonial flowers with outer leaves short, the rather broadly 
lanceolate and serrulate apex slightly spreading, the inner leaves twice longer 
or more, with narrowly lanceolate, serrulate apex mostly somewhat recurved, 
enclosing 8-10 archegonia with rather few, filiform paraphyses; fruit 
not known. 

Haiti: Vicinity of St. Michel de l’Atalaye, at about 350 meters, on dead 
wood, Nov. 20, 1925 (Leonard 7248). 

This species differs from other members of the genus in having the apex 
of most of the leaves, both of stems and flowers, minutely but sharply serru- 
late; the perichaetial leaves also are unusually slenderly pointed and the 
median leaf-cells very narrow. 


MAY 19, 1930 WILLIAMS: HAITIAN MOSSES 179 


























Figure B.—Pilosium serrulatum Williams, sp. nov. 1, Plant, about natural size. 2, 
Stem-leaf, about X 30. 3, Inner perigonial leaf, etc., about X 30. 4, Inner perichaetial 
leaf, etc., about X 30. 5, Median leaf-cells, X 280. 6, Apex of stem-leaf, X 180. 7, 
Partial cross-section of stem, X 180. 8, Basal cells about one-half way across leaf, X 180. 


180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 10 


SEMATOPHYLLUM ADMISTUM Sull. Near Ennery, 325-900 m., on rotten log 
(9001) and on tree (9510). Near Marmelade, about 800 m., on shrub (8299). 
Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, on palm stumps (8460). 

SEMATOPHYLLUM GALIPENSE (C. M.) Mitt. Near Dondon, on rotten wood, 
about 400 m. (8686b). Near Marmelade, on rock, about 800 m. (8250). 
Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, about 350 m. (7624a and 7779); det. E. G. B. 
Near Plaisance about 400 m. (9381); det. E. G. B. 

SEMATOPHYLLUM LOXENSE (Hook.) Mitt. Near Pilate, on trees, about 
325 m. (9587 and 9594c). Near Caye-la-Croix, about 700 m. (7974); det. 
E.G.B. Near Plaisance, 400 m. (9210 and 9211), on trees and on rock (9341). 

SEMATOPHYLLUM SUBPINNATUM (Brid.) E. G. Britton. Near Marmelade 
on shrub, about 800 m. (8185). Near Plaisance, on rotten log, about 
400 m. (9304). 

TAXITHELIUM PLANUM (Brid.) Mitt. Near Dondon, on wood, about 400 m. 
(8690 and 8692). Near Marmelade, on shrub, about 800 m. (8164). Near 
Plaisance, about 400 m. (9224 and 9216); det. E. G. B. 

ISOPTERGIUM MICANS (Sw.) R. & C. Near Plaisance, about 400 m., on 
rotton log (9325), and on bamboo (9413). 

IsSOPTERYGYIUM TENERUM (Sw.) Mitt. Near Dondon, on wood, about 
400 m. (8578, 8685, 8697). Near Marmelade, on tree, about 800 m. (8097). 
Near Pilate, on tree, about 325 m. (9594). Near Plaisance, on rotten log, 
about 400 m. (9216a and 9333). 

TAXIPHYLLUM PLANISSIMUM (Mitt.) Broth. Near Marmelade, on base of 
small tree, about 800 m. (8139). 

VESICULARIA CRASSICAULIS (Mitt.) Broth. Near Caye-la-Croix, about 700 
m., on damp soil (7930); det. E. G. B. 

VESICULARIA VESICULARIS (Schwaegr.) Broth. Near Marmelade, on earth, 
about 800 m. (8150). Near Port au Prince, on rock, near sea-level (10107 
and 10110). Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, about 350 m. (7279). Near 
Plaisance, about 400 m. (9397); det. E. G. B. 

MICROTHAMNIUM DIMINUTIVUM (Hpe.) Jaeg. Near Dondon, on rotten 
log, 8691 and 8695). Near Ennery, on rotten log, 325-900 m. (9005). Near 
Marmelade, on rotten log, 800 m. (8265). Near St. Michel de l’Atalaye, 
about 350 m., on rotten wood (7248a and 7778); det. E. G. B. 7 

MIcCROTHAMNIUM REPTANS (Sw.) Mitt. Near Dondon, on damp walls, 
about 400 m. (8627). Apparently not before collected in Haiti. 

MIcROTHAMNIUM THELISTEGUM (C. M.) Mitt. Near Marmelade, about 
800 m. (8269a). 

POGONATUM TORTILE (Sw.) Brid. Near Plaisance, on clay bank, about 
400 m. (9366); det. E. G. B. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Hoploparia westoni Woodward.1 Mary J. 
RatuBwun, U.S. National Museum. 


A second specimen of this species, found at the Geological Museum, 
University of Alberta, by Prof. P. S. Warren, has been referred to the 
author for description. It was collected by Dr. J. O. G. Anderson in 
Alberta from the Bearpaw shale, 236 feet above the base, L. S. 4, 
Section 32, Range 22, Township 6, west of the 4th meridian, Cata- 
logue No. 409. 


1 Received March 21, 1930. 


MAY 19, 1930 RATHBUN: HOPLOPARIA WESTONI 181 


Hoploparia westoni Woodward 
GS: Neneh 
Hoploparia westoni Woodward, Geol. Mag. [ser. 4] 7: 433, pl. 17, fig. 1 a, b, 
c. 1900; type-locality, Red Deer River, Alberta, Range 15, Township 23, 
west of the 4th principal meridian; Upper Cretaceous. 


MEASUREMENTS.—Lateral length of carapace (incomplete) 40.2 mm., 
dorsal length of abdomen 86 mm. 





Fig. 1. Hoploparia westoni. Left profile. 





Fig. 2. Hoploparia westoni. Dorsal view of posterior end. 


182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 10 


A large part of the carapace and abdomen is preserved. The carapace is 
rough with abundant, conical, acute or subacute spines (mostly broken off) 
of different sizes, well separated and arranged with only a partial bilateral 
symmetry. Interspaces smooth or nearly so. The cervical suture is oblique 





Fig. 3. Hoploparia westoni. Dorsal view of carapace, 


and arcuate forward in profile (Fig. 1); in front of it, the carapace lacks the 
rostrum and hinder median part. Hither side of the median line (Fig. 3) there 
are two longitudinal rows of spines; outside the anterior part of the second 
row there are two short oblique rows of 3 each, converging toward it. A 


MAY 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 183 


slightly elevated ridge seems to terminate in a suborbital spine (Fig. 3 0), 
while a much stronger, longer and rougher ridge leads to the antennal spine 
(Fig. 3a). The cervical suture at its lowest extremity bends forward in a 
curve subparallel to the lower margin of the carapace; from this curve a deep, 
irregular nearly transverse groove runs upward to within a short distance of 
the median line; it has a shallow branch above, and below a deeper one enclos- 
ing a triangular, unispinose area (Fig.1). Behind the cervical suture a broad, 
shallow, longitudinal furrow with 2 or more distant spines appears to be 
median; it is bordered by a blunt multispinose ridge which is continued a 
ways along the posterior margin of the cervical suture. Otherwise the spines 
of the surface are irregularly scattered. The hinder end of the carapace 
is missing. 

The surface of the first five segments of the abdomen is for the most part 
smooth (non-tuberculate) and is finely and closely punctate. The fourth and 
fifth segments have a low, blunt median carina (Fig. 2). The sixth segment 
has an uneven dorsal surface; its median carina is rough with tubercles, per- 
haps spine-tipped; on either side just behind the articulation with the preced- 
ing segment there is a ridge projecting outward and armed with 5 jointed 
spinules; further back and nearer the middle are a number of very fine 
spinules. The pleura (Fig. 1) are separated from the tergum by very uneven 
ridges; pleura 1, 2, and 6 are longer, in the direction of the axis, than high; 
while 3, 4, and 5 are higher than long. All are uneven, and rough with 
tuberculated ridges; 1 is small, short, subtriangular, 2 is broadly rounded, 
subcircular, 3, 4, and 5 are elongate, subtriangular, more or less falcate, 6 is 
produced in a triangle in its anterior half. The telson (Fig. 2) is as broad as 
long, sides arcuate, extremity less so, meeting the lateral margins at an obtuse 
angle; 5 nearly longitudinal grooves, a deep median one along which the 
surface is pitted in addition to the fine punctae; on either side another groove 
convex outward and an outer groove subparallel to the margin. Extremity of 
telson thin, translucent. The uropods are detached from their base but prob- 
ably in life do not reach farther back than the telson; the terminal articles are 
broad-oval; the upper surface of the inner one is concave and there is an indica- 
tion of a row of spines along the posterior end of the outer half. 

Of the appendages a cross-section of perhaps the carpus of the cheliped is 
exposed, also portions of two slender legs. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 
1002ND.eMEETING 


The 1002nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February 
15, 1930. 

Program: W. F. Ronser: Thermoelectric pyrometry. The International 
Temperature Scale adopted in 1927 by the Seventh General Conference of 
Weights and Measures was discussed: in detail. The full text of this scale is 
given in Bureau of Standards Journal of Research, vol. 1, No. 4, 1928. 

The thermoelectric part of the International Temperature Scale is the 
fourth such scale used by the Bureau of Standards since 1912. The other 
three were each described and differences between each of them and the 
International Scale were given. None of these differences exceed 0.3°C. 

The suitability of the copper-silver eutectic alloy was discussed and a 
value given for it, which is considered good to 0.1°C. 


184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 10 


Some difficulties commonly encountered in measuring temperatures were 
discussed and the conditions stated under which the indicated emf of a 
number of thermocouples connected in parallel will correspond to the average 
temperature of the hot junctions. 

The general problem of measuring surface temperatures was discussed and 
two types of contact pyrometers designed and built at the Bureau of Standards 
were described in detail. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. WHITE, TUCKERMAN, and MUELLER. 

H. T. WENSEL: Optical pyrometry. 

There is a limit above which we cannot measure temperatures without 
employing methods based on the laws of radiation. Various laws available 
for this purpose, the Stefan-Boltzman law, the Wien Displacement law, and 
the Wien-Planck Distribution law, were briefly discussed. 

The International temperature scale above the melting point of gold is 
defined by means of the following equation: 


if eee 4. Mog R 
6 1336 1.432 


Where R is the ratio of brightness at wave-length \ em. of the radiation from 
a black body at the melting point of gold (1336°) to the radiation of the same 
wave-length of a body at the temperature 6°K. 

Practical methods of determining R and X were discussed in detail, and 
methods of obtaining the value of \ when a filter is used were contrasted with 
the use of a spectral pyrometer using a dispersion device. 

Examples of the precision attainable with a laboratory form of optical 
pyrometer were given. Bearing in mind that at 1000°K and wave-length 
0.65 micron, a precision of 0.1% in the measurement of the ratio of brightness 
corresponds to a precision of .004% in the absolute temperature, the precision 
attainable is 0.1° to 0.2° at 1100°C., 0.5° at 1500°C., 1° at 2000°C. and about 
5° at 3000°C. The accuracy, of course, depends on other factors than simply 
the precision of photometric matching and is somewhat less than the figures 
given. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. CRITTENDEN, TUCKERMAN, and WHITE. 

Two short informal communications were given by Messrs. WHITE and 
TUCKERMAN. 


1003RD MEETING 


The 1003rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 1, 
1930. It was called to order at 8:15 P. M. by Vice President Curtis. 

Program: L. 8. Taytor: Standardization of X-ray dosage. 

In giving X-ray treatments for cancer, it is very necessary to carefully 
control the X-ray dose given the patient just as the doctor must carefully 
regulate the amount of a drug that he administers. This is particularly 
important where it is necessary to give the greatest possible dose of X-rays 
for, should the dose be too great, burns or more serious injuries might result. 
Likewise it is necessary for the doctors to use some standard dose so that it 
may be easily duplicated in all parts of the country and all over the world to 
measure the dose in the same unit, so that their treatments may be reproduced 
and repeated. At present many doctors use small portable measuring instru- 
ments called dosage meters and it is necessary that these be calibrated accu- 
rately in the agreed unit. At the Second International Congress of Radiology, 
held in Stockholm, Sweden, July, 1928, an international unit of X-ray in- 


MAY 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 185 
tensity was agreed upon and called the ‘‘r’’ unit. A series of studies at the 
Bureau of Standards has led to the establishment of the unit in this country. 
The method of measurement consists essentially in allowing an X-ray beam 
to pass between two metal plates, one of which is connected to a high voltage 
battery and the other to a sensitive measuring instrument. The X-rays cause 
the air between the plates to conduct electricity so that a very small electric 
current flows through this air and is measured by the sensitive meter. This 
small current of electricity is proportional to the intensity of the X-rays. 
Thus an accurate knowledge of the X-ray dose may be obtained by measuring 
this electric current. Having thus established the standard, the dosage 
meters used by all doctors can be calibrated at the Bureau of Standards in 
the accepted unit. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Curtis, HuMpHREYs, Priest and TUCKERMAN. 

L. B. Tuckerman, 8S. N. Perrenxo and C. D. JouHnson: The strength of 
metal tubing for structural purposes. 

Hooke’s law, “‘ut tensio sic vis,’ states that in an elastic structure the 
stress is proportional to the strain. ‘This law is approximately valid for 
sufficiently low stresses but for stresses high enough to cause failure in ductile 
materials, it ceases to be even a rough approximation. 

As a consequence the strength of a structure cannot, in general, be related 
to the strength of a test specimen of the material by the theory of elasticity 
based on Hooke’s law. It is necessary to resort to experiment, using the 
theory of elasticity merely as a qualitative guide. 

The necessity of high strength combined with light weight in aircraft 
structures has increased the demand for accurate knowledge of the relation 
between the strength of structural tubing and the specified strength of 
the material. 

In codperation with the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 
the Bureau of Aeronautics of the Navy and the manufacturers of structural 
tubing, the Bureau of Standards has for the past few years, been carrying 
out an extended series of experiments on the strength of the tubing under 
combined axial and transverse loads. 

The test procedure was outlined and the methods of combining the results 
into design charts were described. 

These methods were partly empirical and partly theoretical, based upon 
previous work on columns under pure axial load. A full description of the 
work is given in National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Technical 
Note No. 307. (Authors’ abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Lirprocxk, L. H. Apams, and HUMPHREYs. 


Oscar 8. Apams, Recording Secretary. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
417TH MEETING 


The 417th regular meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington 
was held at 8 p.m. Thursday, February 6, 1930, in Room 48 of the new build- 
ing of the U. 8. National Museum. Dr. L. O. Howarp, Honorary President, 
presided. 

Program: Fuoyp F. Smitu: Studies of the black vine weevil.—The black vine 
weevil, Brachyrhinus sulcatus Fabr., is widely distributed and is occasionally 
a serious pest of many plants. Although known as a pest of greenhouse plants 
and of grapes for many years, very little study of the biology and control of 
this weevil was made until Feytaud carefully observed it for three years in 
the vineyards of Oleron, France. 


186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 10 


The studies reported here by the author extend over a period of three and 
one-half years—from 1925 to 1929. Observations were made on the life 
cycle in greenhouses as well as in the nurseries and control experiments were 
conducted under both situations. 

From these studies it is evident that the insect has one annual generation 
in Pennsylvania. The winter is passed rarely as adults but usually as pre- 
pupae or as immature larvae in the soil. The latter begin feeding in March 
and most of them will reach maturity to pupate with the over-wintering 
prepupae in May. After about three weeks as pupae the insects transform 
to adults in the cells and lie inactive for 5 to 10 days during which time the 
skeleton becomes darkened and hardened. The adults then emerge from the 
soil in early June and begin to feed on foliage. After four to six weeks, usu- 
ally in mid-July, they begin to oviposit. The oviposition period usually ends 
rather abruptly in late August or early September but some eggs may be laid 
until early October. The eggs laid late in the fall produce larvae which are 
overtaken by cold weather before attaining full growth. These continue their 
development in the early spring and may produce adults as late as mid-July. 
The adults at the end of the oviposition period in the fall seek hibernation 
quarters and die during the winter except a very few which may emerge the 
following May. These begin to oviposit in about three weeks and continue, 
during the second summer, until September. Their early-spring-laid eggs 
will produce larvae which form prepupal cells in late August and lie inactive 
until the following spring. A few of these larvae maturing in August may 
pupate and emerge as adults during the same fall and these will enter hiberna- 
tion. Out of doors the adults laid from 0 to 488 eggs during the first season. 
The number varied greatly with the host, fewer eggs being laid by adults 
confined on strawberry or yellow dock and the greater number by adults 
confined on primroses or plantain. 

The insect may live continually in the greenhouse but probably, in the 
majority of cases, the adults come into the greenhouse from an outside source 
and oviposit during July and August. The eggs laid during this period hatch 
into larvae which mature in November or December as they cut off the roots 
and burrow into the crowns to the destruction of the host plants which are 
just coming into bloom for the Christmas market. Should these plants, with 
the larvae-infested soil, be left on the bench or thrown beneath it as is some- 
times done by the florist, the larvae pupate in January or February and 
emerge about one month later. These adults will begin to oviposit during 
April or early May on favorable hosts, such as young cyclamen, and continue 
to lay eggs until September. The adults have laid as many as 1065 eggs 
during the first season. Normally they seek hibernation quarters, probably 
outside the greenhouse, and but few emerge in the spring. If confined in 
cages in the greenhouse these adults will remain sluggish for two or three 
months but become active and begin to oviposit in December or January. 
The second period of oviposition usually dwindles during the following mid- 
summer but may continue until September. These adults lived for several 
weeks after the last eggs were laid and dissection at death showed that no eggs 
were present in the ovaries. The largest number of eggs laid by a single caged 
adult in the greenhouse was 1681, and the greatest age of a single adult at 
death was 816 days. The average number of eggs laid in this series was 1072 
and the average age of adults at death was 454 days. The eggs hatch in the 
greenhouse at extremes of 11 and 22 days, depending upon the temperature, 
the average being 15-16 days both in and out of doors. 


MAY 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 187 


The prepupal stage may be as short as three weeks at warm soil tempera- 
tures and has been known to be as long as eight and one-half months at cool 
temperatures. Pupation did not take place until the soil temperature 
exceeded 55°F. Soil temperature at 55-65°F. is apparently the optimum for 
the development of this insect. At higher temperatures the mortality is very 
high in the prepupal stage; this is due to the attacks of fungi, Fusarzum sp. 
and Isaria sp. The pupal stage is about 18 days in length with extremes 
of 16 and 27 days. 

The larvae pass through 5 or 6 instars during their period of growth evi- 
dently depending upon the abundance of food. Since molting follows a reduc- 
tion in the amount of available food the number of instars may be increased 
to 7. The larvae mature in 72 to 110 days in the greenhouse. A few adults 
were found to emerge in the fall from early-spring-laid eggs. The shortest 
period of development, from egg hatching to adult emergence, in the green- 
house, was 116 days while out of doors the maximum was 380 days. The 
maximum life span may then total 1190 days or three and one-quarter years 
according to these studies. 

Usually the florist, being economical with soil, discards the infested plants 
and dumps both larvae and soil on the compost heap as soon as he notices 
the decline of the plants. The larvae have been shown to lie dormant in this 
situation and to pupate and emerge as adults at approximately the same time 
as do those developing entirely outside. The adults then merely return to the 
greenhouse and oviposit during July and August to renew the infestation 
without the necessity of some outdoor host. 

The adult oviposits by dropping her eggs wherever she may be, but it is 
evident that she also occasionally places them in soil or plant crevices. 

The larvae during the first 3 or 4 instars feed on the small rootlets and cause 
no noticeable harm to the plants, but during the later instars growth is rapid 
and the larvae cut and devour the larger roots and crowns or corms. ‘This 
accounts for the sudden destruction of the plants which were not suspected 
of being infested. On woody-stemmed plants the fine rootlets are attacked 
by the younger larvae but the bark and cambium are devoured by the later 
stages. Evidence of larval damage to plants in the nursery usually becomes 
noticeable in April or May while in the greenhouse plants show injury in 
November or December. 

The adults prefer flowers to foliage of a given plant species and will eat out 
characteristic notches in both. Leaf petioles are also cut and twigs may be 
girdled. The adults are nocturnal and hide during the day. Their protec- 
tive coloring blends them into almost any background so that they readily 
escape observation. 

Feytaud found no males in his studies of B. sulcatus, but did not prove, by 
isolation, that parthenogenesis actually occurred. In the present studies the 
writer has reared, in isolation, 6 generations of this insect and all produced 
fertile eggs. No males have been found among the thousands of individuals 
examined externally or among the 1200 adults dissected. Economically this 
point is important since the reproductive potential is thus increased in geo- 
metrical proportions. 

Few parasites or predators have been recorded for this insect. The writer 
found that skunks, mice, and toads ate the adults. Larvae of a ground beetle 
(Harpalus caliginosus) were found attacking the larvae of B. sulcatus and 
readily devoured 2 to 4 larvae per day when supplied with them in confine- 
ment. The fungi, Fusarium sp. and Isaria sp. attack the larvae in the green- 
pouses especially during the summer months when the soil temperature 
is high. 


188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 10 


Literature contains many notes suggesting materials for control of B. 
sulcatus either in the adult or immature stages. These materials were tested 
in the present studies and nearly all were found to be ineffective against the 
insect at dilutions sublethal to the host plants. From the control studies it 
was found that the mixing of powdered acid lead arsenate in the soil was the 
only material which proved toxic to the larvae and unharmful to the host 
plants—cyclamen and primroses. Other plants were found to be severely 
injured by small quantities of lead arsenate in the soil so that the general use 
of this material as a soil insecticide can not be advised. To be effective one 
ounce of this material to one bushel of potting soil should be used. The 
amount was not found harmful to the cyclamens and primroses, the usual 
host plants in the United States. ; 

A sweetened, poisoned bran bait, previously recommended for related wee- 
vils, was found to be effective against the adult B. sulcatus weevils and is 
preferable to any other material tested if the staining of foliage is objection- 
able. If not objectionable a dust composed of equal parts of calcium arsenate 
and of hydrated lime may be used and gives a slightly higher kill than does 
the bran bait in tests on Taxus inthe nursery. Probably the bran bait should 
be used in the greenhouse and the dust in the nursery. 

In these studies tests were made to check on as many host plants as were 
available. The results point to the probability that B. sulcatus has sometimes 
been confused with other insects, especially the Fuller’s rose beetle (Panto- 
morus godmant) and other species of the genus Brachyrhinus. The black vine 
weevil is evidently not a grass feeder, as has been previously suggested, but 
thrives on several of our grass-infesting weeds such as docks, sorrel (Rumex 
spp.), dandelion (Taraxicum spp.), and plaintain (Plantago spp.). These 
plants are sufficiently common to be a potential source of an infestation about 
any greenhouse and should be eliminated. 

The digestive and nervous systems of the larvae and adult, and the repro- 
ductive systems of the adult female were discussed. (Author’s abstract.) 

A number of slides were shown. This paper was discussed by Howarp, 
Bovine, Woop, RoHwer, SPRESSARD, Poos, and CAMPBELL. 

Remarks were made on invitation by a visitor, Dr. FRANK E. Lutz, Curator 
of Insects of the Division of Zoology and Zodgeography of the American 
Museum of Natural History, New York City, who expressed pleasure at 
being with us, extended greetings from the New York Entomological Society 
and an invitation to our membership to attend its sessions on the first and 
third Tuesdays of each month. He also discussed in some detail observations 
he had recently made on one of the New York ‘‘movietone”’ production com- 
panies in making commercial records of the chirping of crickets, and illustrated 
his remarks by blackboard diagrams of methods of calculating the pitch of a 
cricket’s tone and making comparative analysis of this with vibrations per 
second of an ordinary piano. 

Another visitor, Professor H. J. Rernuarp of the A. & M. College of Texas, 
also was asked to address the society. He referred briefly to some special 
research work he was conducting in the Museum with Doctor ALpRICcH on 
the Tachinidae genus, Winthemiza, and discussed some of the variations in 
local problems between entomologists in widely separated sections of the 
country. He invited all the membership of the society in travel status in 
Texas to visit his station. 

Professor JOHN GRAY, Professor of Plant Pathology and Economic Ento- 
mology of the College of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station of 
the University of Florida, a visitor, on invitation addressed the society, 


MAY 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 189 


referred humorously to recent tourist conditions in Florida, and outlined 
briefly the organization and work of the various scientific organizations in 
his State. He expressed pleasure at the opportunity to visit Washington 
and its scientific organizations as he used every opportunity to learn more 
about what Government and State men are doing. Many of his students 
expect later on to enter upon Government or State work, and unless properly 
guided, often have a hard time of it getting started. 

L. O. Howarp spoke briefly of the lives of F. W. Hurron, THomas Brown 
and W. M. Maske, prominent New Zealand entomologists of the last 
century. Their lives, he pointed out, were strangely coincidental in some 
respects. 

Some remarks were made by Dr. W. V. BaupurF regarding a recent article 
by A. HAss, which contains an account of the use of a mite (T'yroglyphus siro) 
in manufacture of a cheese, Milbenkdse, in Lautenburg, Germany. The curd 
of cow’s milk is shaped into form resembling an O’Henry candy bar; it is 
dried in the open air, then placed in a jar containing a culture of the above 
mite. The mites consume the surface superficially, leaving a flaky cover 
consisting, beside cheese particles, of mite exuviae and mite castings and 
bodies. After 6 to 12 weeks the cheese is eaten, with the mites intact or after 
jarring some of them off. Sometimes pathogenic effects are produced in 
persons eating too much for the first time. Molds do not develop on this 
cheese, and it is believed that the mites are in some way responsible for failure 
of the mold to grow. The absence of mold where mites occur is believed by 
the author to be the reason why mites came to be employed in the manu- 
facture of this cheese. (Author’s abstract.) 

R. E. SNoperass submitted a brief note regarding certain functions of the 
beak of scale insects and compared their mouth parts with those of some other 
Hemiptera. 

Mr. Rouwenr called attention to the recent infestation of the pink bollworm 
in the Salt River Valley in Arizona, stating that since the initial discovery of 
the infestation, which was called to the society’s attention at the November 
meeting, the infested area had been delimited and arrangements were being 
perfected to clean up the fields. In connection with delimiting the infested 
area, all the cotton-producing regions in Arizona and California had been 
carefully scouted. As a result of this survey, it is believed that the present 
infestation is confined to that portion of Salt River Valley east of Tempe and 
to a small area on the Indian Reservation near Sacaton. Infestation has 
been discovered at twenty-five different points in the Salt River Valley and 
is heaviest in the eastern portion of the valley. In this area 45 per cent of 
the bolls in some fields were infested. 

The non-cotton zone which has been established by the State contains 
144,400 acres and extends two miles from the outermost points of infestation. 
Within the non-cotton zone there are about 35,000 acres which, for the crop 
of 1929, were planted to cotton. The non-cotton zone is surrounded by a 
protective, or buffer, zone which extends three miles beyond the non-cotton 
zone. In this buffer zone restrictions are placed on the date when cotton can 
be planted. For the crop of 1930, pima, or long stable cotton, can not be 
planted before April 1. Acala and other of the shorter staple varieties can 
not be planted before April 15. 

The menace this infestation presents to other cotton-producing regions in 
Arizona and California, as well as the danger of infestation to the main 
cotton belt of the east, prompted the Department to request funds to under- 
take clean-up of the cotton fields throughout the non-cotton zone and in 


190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 10 


some parts of the buffer area. A Joint resolution appropriating $587,500 for 
such clean-up passed the Senate today. In addition to this appropriation, 
the act authorizing Federal participation in compensating farmers, for actual 
and necessary losses because of the enforced non-production of cotton, has 
been amended by both the House and the Senate. The amendment reduces 
the amount of the appropriation authorized and provides full Federal com- 
pensation for the crop of 1930, conditioned on the Federal Treasury being 
reimbursed for one-half of the amount paid. It is hoped that this appropria- 
tion for clean-up and the proposed arrangements for compensation for the 
crop of 1930 will enable the Department to carry out its program and eradi- 
cate the pink bollworm from the Salt River Valley. 

Mr. Rouwer also referred to previous work on this pest, pointing out 
that it had been eradicated from considerable areas in eastern Texas and 
Louisiana. (Author’s abstract.) 


J. S. Wans8, Recording Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Dr. ALEXANDER WeErTMoRg, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, in charge of the National Museum, has been elected an honorary member 
of the Deutsche Ornithologische Gesellschaft. 


H. G. Fereuson and M. I. GotpMAN have been appointed assistant secre- 
taries of the Sixteenth International Geological Congress, which will be held 
in the United States in 1932. 


Dr. Remineton KeEutuoae, Assistant Curator, Division of Mammals of 
the National Museum, is spending two or three months in an examination of 
the types of fossil cetaceans in various European museums. 


M. W. Strruine, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, recently 
returned to Washington from Florida, where he excavated a large shell mound 
near Safety Harbor. He obtained a large amount of skeletal material as 
well as a good collection of objects representative of the culture of the period. 


Miss Frances DrENsMORE, a collaborator of the Bureau of American 
Ethnology, is spending several weeks in Washington in connection with her 
studies of the music of the indians. 


Miss JuLIA GARDNER has resumed field work on the Tertiary formations 
of Texas in connection with the proposed geologic map of the State. 


Dr. L. W. STEPHENSON, who is working on the Cretaceous formations near 
Uvalde, Texas, will return to Washington the latter part of May. 


@Obituary 


EFS eee 
HILBERT A. C. JENISON 


Early in the morning of his birthday, February 28, H1nBert A. C. JENISON, 
mining geologist and engineer, for some years a member of the U. S. Geo- 
logical Survey, died at his apartment in New York. 


MAY 19, 1930 OBITUARY: C. E. SIEBENTHAL 191 


Of distinguished Irish descent on his mother’s (CAULFIELD) side and of 
Danish ancestory on his father’s side, and with high military records in both 
families, JENISON was a native of San Francisco. Due to lack of financial 
resources, much of his education was received at home under guidance of 
intelligent parents. Meager opportunities were, however, compensated by 
very unusual precocity and brilliancy of mind. He was far ahead of his 
school fellows and was most comprehensive in his early reading, with a distinct 
preference for history and biography. After four and one-half years in the 
public schools he entered Mount Tamalpais Military School, where he was a 
student for three years, during which he made an outstanding record. 

In his personnel record he is entered as having studied at the University 
of Washington for two years, and in the following two years at the University 
of California, where he showed brilliant ability in mathematics and mining 
geology, though he left the University without thesis and graduation. 

Ardently patriotic, he enlisted as a volunteer when the United States 
entered the World War, and at its close he left the Army slightly disabled 
and sought a position in the U. 8. Geological Survey, in which he was ap- 
pointed Associate Mineral Geographer in the summer of 1919. In 1921 
he was appointed geologist. 

While a member of the geologic staff of the Survey (September 23, 1919 
to November 27, 1923) Captain JENISON was engaged first in gathering infor- 
mation regarding the copper resources of the Americas and, with D. F. 
HEWETT, in the compilation of the statistics of production of manganese. 
Later he took over from B. 8. BuTuER the preparation of the annual mineral 
resources reports covering copper, and this opened the way to a compilation 
and review of the information regarding world resources of copper, on which 
a somewhat extensive manuscript was compiled. For this work he was 
especially well fitted, due to his remarkable memory, keenness of mind, and 
power of concentration, combined with a marked interest in the economics 
of the mineral industry. Due to the latter he was, in 1923, prior to his 
resignation, detailed to codperate with the Chairman of the Senate Committee 
on Mines and Mining in the study of the cost of production of silver and its 
associated metals in the western States. 

For a short time after severing his connection with the Survey, Captain 
JENISON was occupied with commercial examinations of manganese and other 
metalliferous deposits in North America, in the course of which he was ap- 
pointed mining specialist on the staff of the Guaranty Trust Company of 
New York, for which he examined many mining properties in several coun- 
tries of Europe as well as in the United States. 

In 1921 Captain JENISON married Miss LorEE O’CoNNELL, a graduate of 
the University of Nebraska. She, together with his parents and a sister, 
resident in California, survive him. Captain JENISON was buried in Arlington 
National Cemetery March 3, 1930. 


Davip WHITE. 


CLAUDE ELLSWORTH SIEBENTHAL 


Dr. CLaupE ELLSwoRTH SIEBENTHAL, specialist on lead and zine for the 
U. S. Geological Survey, died at Daytona Beach, Florida on March 1 after 
a long illness. 

Both as geologist and economist Doctor SIEBENTHAL received wide recogni- 
tion as an authority on lead and zine. Born at Vevay, Ind., April 16, 1869, a 
descendent of JoHN FRANciIs de SIEBENTHAL, a founder of Vevay and Switzer- 


192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 10 


land County, Ind. (1801), he studied at Indiana University (1889-1891), 
was graduated from Stanford University in 1892, and received the degree of 
A.M. there in 1893. From 1889-1893 he also served as assistant geologist on 
the Arkansas Geological Survey under Dr. JoHN C. BRANNER, later President 
of Stanford. He then returned to Indiana, serving on the State Geological 
Survey until 1897, where with T. C. Hopxrns he prepared a report on the 
Indiana oolitic limestone. He was a fellow at the University of Chicago 
1897-1901. 

He joined the U. 8. Geological Survey in 1901 and after several seasons 
devoted to studies of ground waters in Wyoming and Colorado was transferred 
to the mineral fields of the Mississippi Valley. In 1907 he was placed in 
charge of investigations relating to lead and zine and in 1915 published his 
classical report on the origin of the lead and zinc deposits of the Joplin district. 
From 1907 until 1924 he was responsible for the Survey’s annual reports on 
lead and zine and contributed several articles to the technical press and the 
Zinc Institute on the economics of those metals. 

He was a member of the Geological Society of America, the American 
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, local scientific societies, and 
the Cosmos Club. 

Doctor SIEBENTHAL was an effective influence for the best in human rela- 
tions, through the manifestation of his genuine interest in his fellows generally, 
and particularly in those afflicted by illness or adversity. He was distin- 
guished among his friends for an innate gentleness and courtesy, and a keen 
sense of humor which continually enlivened his conversation. 

In 1904 he was married to Miss Myrrtite MappeEn of Olney, IIL, who, with 
his sister, survives him. 





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‘ 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 JuNE 4, 1930 NOx eb 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY .—Peat profiles in the Puget Sound Basin 
of Washington: ALFRED P. DAcCHNowSsKI-STOKEsS, U. 8. Bureau 
of Chemistry and Soils. 


1; 


The purpose of the present paper is to set forth the relationship 
between peat materials, profile features, and certain events recorded in 
peatlands of the Puget Sound Basin. The desire to study further the 
evidence of recent changes of sea level observed in the Delta peatlands 
of California (6) led to a continuation of field work in Washington, 
with the view to compare and if possible to connect it with the evidence 
obtained from peat deposits in Florida (4), North Carolina (3) and 
Maine (5). This paper is chiefly an account of the order of occur- 
rence of the different layers of peat in profile sections because a record 
of this kind enables codrdination between peatlands and represents 
also the history of the succession of past vegetation and of the former 
conditions of the region, in part very unlike those now existing. <A 
general description of the present vegetation of these areas, as well as 
their environmental conditions is to be published elsewhere in this 
journal by Rigg.2 The agricultural practices and purposes and the 
economic aspects of the different types of moors studied it is hoped to 
set forth in another paper. 

The geologic history of the Puget Sound Basin has been reported by 
several writers (1, 7, 14) and is summarized in the Tacoma folio No. 54 
of the Geologic Atlas of the United States (15). Puget Sound occupies 


1 Received April 23, 1930. 

2 The soundings and general examination of most of the peat areas were carried out 
together with Prof. G. B. Riae of the Department of Botany, University of Washington, 
Seattle, and with Messrs. C. H. Berastrom and C. W. Norton of the County Extension 
Service. The author takes this opportunity to express his appreciation and indebted- 
ness for the codperation and helpful assistance rendered. 


193 


194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 11 


an ancient depression parallel to the Pacific coast. Mountain ranges 
lie on either side of the trough-like depression, the Olympic Moun- 
tains on the west and the high Cascade Mountains on the east. 

The geography and the soils of this region have been described in a 
reconnaissance soil survey made by Mangum (8). The principal 
topographic features are peculiar in that they fall naturally into two 
distinct sections. ‘The major depressions consist partly of a branching 
system of land-locked, narrow lakes and sounds and partly of valleys 
of the larger streams, flowing in ill-defined channels and emptying into 
Puget Sound. ‘The elevations are ridges of the plateau type, essen- 
tially flat topped, bounded by rather steep slopes, and standing out 
as islands and peninsulas with the long axis trending north and south. 
Lakes occupy many depressions upon the plateaus. It is probable 
that the principal topographic features conform to an older topo- 
graphic relief and are a part of the sequence of events which developed 
during the Glacial period. Willis and Smith (15) state that along 
many stretches of Admiralty Inlet in the Puget Sound “there is a 
terrace about 20 feet above the present sea level. In some places it 
appears to be a wave-cut bank; and elsewhere it is a delta terrace built 
out by a tributary system. This 20 foot terrace probably represents 
an earlier relation to the sea level, when it stood 20 feet higher against 
the land than it now stands. Other benches have been observed 
varying from 60 to 100 feet above sea level.’ Interpreting a group of 
facts Willis and Smith infer that since the last Glacial period the land 
stood high enough above sea to permit rivers to cut as deeply as the 
bottom of the sound, and that the land has subsided, submerging the 
valleys to the present depth. According to Kimball (7) the post- 
glacial crustal movements have been an elevation and a subsidence 
followed by a more recent re-elevation. 

The nearness of the high mountains condensing the moisture of the 
prevailing western winds, and the warm Japan ocean current of the 
northeastern Pacific are the chief factors which profoundly affect the 
climate of this region. Although Puget Sound lies in the latitude of 
Newfoundland, it has been described as having a mean temperature 
which corresponds to a latitude like that of Chesapeake Bay on the 
Atlantic Coast. The rainfall varies but the averages range probably 
from 40 to 55 inches per annum. The precipitation is distributed 
throughout a mild, rainy winter season, with a cool summer of little 
rainfall. As a result of the equable, maritime climate many plants 
which normally inhabit cold or humid and even arid climates have 
migrated into the Puget Sound Basin. A northern vegetation merges 
by a narrow transition belt into the southern zone of plant life and con- 


JUNE 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 195 


WHATCOM 
Mt. Baker s3% 


FAW 


JEFFERSON 


SNL 


sre Mt. Olympus 


GRAYS HARBOR 


| acd FeNe> 
| Mt. Adams 


WASHINGTON 


SCALE: STATUTE MILES 


(9 20 30 #0 5O 





Fig. 1—Map showing the location and numbers of peat-profile soundings in the 
Puget Sound Basin of eastern Washington and the principal volcanic peaks that are now 
extinct. 


196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 11 


sequently the overlapping of northern and southern species is more 
extensive in this region than in any other part of the Pacific Coast. 

In order to describe the moors or peatlands of the Puget Sound region 
and to establish relationships between them, it will be necessary to 
state briefly the conspicuous features of general significance which can 
be used for grouping areas of peat. 

The correlation of the details of different peatlands or moors de- 
pends upon the recognition of certain natural geographic relationships 
of the region, upon topographic relief and drainage conditions, and 
upon the character and sequence of the different layers of peat derived 
from corresponding vegetation units. Some of the outstanding 
differences between classes of peat material and the structural fea- 
tures of profile sections have been described in Bulletin 1419 of the 
U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 

Conforming with the procedure of the United States Soil Survey, 
the separation of peatlands into type units is based on the texture and 
botanical composition of the peat materials at the surface, and on 
the essentially similar sequence of layers and morphological charac- 
teristics in the vertical cross-section from the surface to the under- 
lying mineral substratum. These divisions usually bear a geographic 
or locality name. 

When the stratigraphic and morphological features of similar peat- 
land profiles indicate a sequence most closely associated with the layer 
of parent peat overlying the mineral substratum, the vertical cross- 
sections constitute units of series. The serial units are differentiated 
mainly on the basis of the shape and character of the bottom topog- 
raphy in intimate relation to the water table, drainage conditions, 
and corresponding features in the layers of peat producing variation 
in color, and stage of decay. ‘The series are grouped, therefore, into 
units beginning as lakes, as marshes, or as forests; they are designated 
by the terms limnogenic, telmatogenic, and terrestrogenic, to indicate 
the origin and mode of development of the respective profiles as well 
as the additional changes which express successions in the vegetation 
and the degree and depth of decomposition of the respective peat 
layers. 

Series of peatland profiles are differentiated also on the basis of 
physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics which they have 
in common under the influence of environmental processes active in 
different regions and climates. ‘The concentrating effect of evapora- 
tion in arid climates, the diluting and leaching effect of rainfall in 
humid regions, often completely removing certain constituents from 
the surface of the profile, the solutes contributed with ground- and 


JUNE 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 197 


flood-waters, very different in their saline composition from tellurial 
waters, lead to characteristics that can be given a regional expression. 
The wide range in cold, temperate, and tropical environment under 
which peatlands originate and become transformed from the virgin 
condition; the stages marked by profile features associated with de- 
composition and the direction in which the process is proceeding, these 
require recognition of geographic relationships. No names have yet 
been suggested to designate the characteristics of this group of serial 
units because they are not clearly enough defined, owing to the lack 
of accumulated facts regarding them. 

The several units of moors are further grouped on the basis of 
relationships associated with differences in the regions dominated by 
major divisions of the natural vegetation and by the peat soils sup- 
porting them. Although peat profiles show in their past history much 
variation in the character of the plant communities that were sup- 
ported from time to time and succeeded one another as stages, yet 
the natural vegetative cover is generally the expression of interrela- 
tions with many factors in the environment. It provides often a 
better basis for regional distinctions between moors than any one set of 
factors and processes. In their present development the peatlands or 
moors of different latitudes are characterized by dominant forms of 
vegetation units, vast in extent and of great permanence, such as 
tundra, forest, shrub, and marsh. However the corresponding larger 
units of peat soils have not yet been defined or correlated because 
ecological and pedomorphic data have not been fully worked out and 
suitable concepts of vegetation units are not yet well established. 

A final grouping is based on the reaction of peatlands in different 
regions, regardless of the character of the parent peat layers in the 
profile section. The terms eutrophic and oligotrophic have been used 
for regional groups of moors to designate more specifically the pres- 
ence or absence of certain mineral salts, including carbonate of lime 
and essential plant food constituents in the peat soil solution. 

Enough is known to indicate that a preliminary scheme of classifica- 
tion can be used for moors or peatlands such as that worked out by 
Marbut (9) for mineral soils. Categories corresponding in their major 
aspects to Marbut’s divisions should be practicable for peat soils if 
they are accepted on the same basis of inherent profile characteristics 
and general environmental relationships. Regional investigations 
along these lines are being continued.’ 


’ For a map showing regions in which the major groups of peatland occur in the 
United States, see Journ. Amer. Soc. Agronomy 22: 352-366. 1930. 


198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 11 


With this viewpoint in mind the peatlands in the Puget Sound 
Basin may be described separately as follows: 


II 


PROFILES OF PEATLANDS IN THE VALLEY FLOOR 


A number of lakes lie scattered over the valley floor, of which the 
largest are Lake Washington and Sammamish Lake, occupying eleva- 
tions of 22 and 35 feet above sea level respectively. Lingering tongues 
of stagnant Vashon ice probably occupied hollows or valleys of earlier 
origin. Subsequent melting of the buried ice left the depressions oc- 
cupied by water which was later ponded by alluvial deposits of drift. 
Streams and tributaries flow into the lakes, forming a connected drain- 
age system which empties into the Puget Sound. 

The water supplies from the Duwamish, Puyallup, and Snohomish 
Rivers reported by Byers carry only a small amount of mineral matter 
in solution (2). Van Winkle (14) states in his account of the average 
chemical composition of the river waters, that ‘‘all the waters belong 
to the calcium carbonate type,—that is, the alkaline earths calcium 
and magnesium, and carbonates or bicarbonates predominate. The 
content of sulphate is not large and chlorine is very low. Silica, 
though not present in very great quantity, consitutes a large propor- 
tion of the mineral matter in such dilute solutions. Iron is generally 
so low as to be almost inappreciable.”’ 

Fine silt from the glaciers of Mount Rainier is occasionally laid down 
close to the main river channels. By this means natural dikes are 
being built up which in places are bordered by bodies of quiet water, 
swamp and marsh. Large areas of the valley floor are subject to 
inundation by spring and autumn rains. Although the water carries 
salts in solution which serve as plant food constituents, the river beds 
being higher than the plain present problems of flood control. 

The primeval vegetation in the valleys was a forest of cedar (Thuja 
plicata), white fir (Abzes grandis) and deciduous shrubs such as alder, 
willow, maple and other associates. The wetter ground was in- 
habited by extensive marshes resembling the ‘‘tule’”’ land of southern 
Oregon and California. They are of rather uniform floristic character 
in which reeds, tule, cat-tail, sedges, buckbean, arrow grass, burr 
reed, marshlocks and aquatic plants form the chief components. 

The peat soils at the surface may have a loose, gray brown mulch 
but the subsurface material varies in texture from a woody-fibrous 
sedge peat or a light-brown, coarse, fibrous-matted to a heavier type 
of sedimentary-fibrous sedge and reed peat which contains a high 


JUNE 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 199 


percentage of diatomaceous earth and silt at a shallow depth below 
the surface. ‘Truck gardening has become the important type of 
peatland agriculture. Most of the valley land between Seattle and 
Tacoma, including large areas of peat, is now generally cleared, 
improved, and traversed by railroads. 


1. The Mercer Slough type profile 


About 7 miles east of Seattle, on the eastern shore of Lake Washing- 
ton, is Mercer Slough. The form and area of the peat deposit are 
shown on the Seattle topographic sheet of the United States Geological 
Survey. It lies in T. 24 .N., R. 5 E., along sections, 5, 8, and 17, and 
is reached from Seattle by a circuitous road around the northern end 
of Lake Washington. The peat deposit is a grass-sedge lowmoor and 
occupies a flat but gently sloping depression, limited by relatively 
steep banks. It is about half a mile wide and contains a finger- 
shaped, narrow lake extending northward and in turn passing into a 
small stream that flows down from the plateau. Southward the peat 
area continues along the margin of the lake toward Newcastle Landing. 

The stratigraphic features of the peat profile are comparatively 
simple. Broadly speaking the cross section consists of two layers. 
The upper layer is yellow-brown, poorly decomposed owing to a high 
water table, andis composed of matted, fibrous peat from interwoven 
rhizomes and roots of tule (Scirpus sp.), sedges (Carex sp.), and reeds 
(Phragmites sp.) In thickness the layer is about 8 to 9 feet and lies 
superimposed upon a basal layer of. grayish-brown, finely-divided 
sedimentary peat. ‘This, in turn, is underlain by gray sand at the 
depth of 43 feet below the present surface. 

In morphological detail of structure the Mercer Slough peat profile 
presents some interesting facts. 

The organic material at the bottom is firm, dark-brown, in a com- 
pacted and nearly dry condition, and sharply demarked from an over- 
lying sheet of cream-colored volcanic ash at the 40 foot level. In its 
early postglacial history Lake Washington and vicinity must have 
received a large amount of pure volcanic ash which fell directly into the 
lake and brought to a close the accumulation of peat from the older 
vegetation growing at the shore. Pressed by the accumulation of 
later masses of peat above, the ash cover now measures a thickness 
from 3 to 8 inches and extends for miles, varying but slightly in thick- 
ness in different areas of peat. It was probably ejected from one of the 
craters of the Olympic Mountain range. 

Three bands of soft, sedimentary peat are encountered with a moder- 
ate admixture of fibrous tule and reed material at depths of 14 and 17 


200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 11 


feet, and between the 20 to 24 foot level. They alternate with diato- 
maceous sedimentary material that probably relates to conditions in 
which small forms of plankton life multiplied and developed more 
rapidly than the larger semi-aquatic marsh plants. 

At a shallow depth of about 8 inches below the surface, the partly 
decomposed tule-reed peat is underlain by a thin band of sphagnum- 
moss peat. Islands of mosses appear to have followed a shrub stage, 
the remnants of which are a black woody debris, charred by fires and 
derived from ericaceous heaths such as Ledum sp. The band of moss 
peat is not extensive but forms lenses and in places overlies a thin 
layer of diatomaceous sedimentary peat. At depths of 7 and 9 feet 
below the surface an admixture of darker partly decomposed woody 
material is encountered. ‘These variations are probably the result 
of local changes in water level. The plant remains are fresh-water 
forms, and throughout these changes the waters appear to have 
generally remained fresh rather than brackish or salty. 


2. The Redmond peat profile 


The Redmond record was obtained at the north end of Sammamish 
Lake in an area under cultivation in lettuce, located in T. 25 N., 
R. 5 E., section 2. The profile is similar to the one encountered 
at Mercer Slough and consists of two layers. The surface layer is 
partly fibrous, more or less decomposed reed-sedge peat over a band of 
diatomaceous sedimentary material below the surface 14 inches. 
Between the 3 and 10 foot levels the material is composed of fibrous 
yellowish-brown matted tule-reed peat, which contains at the 6 foot 
level a thin band of plant remains from hypnum mosses and at the 7 
and 9 foot levels a quantity of partly decomposed woody fragments 
from deciduous shrubs, such as alder and birch. 

The basal layer of finely divided sedimentary peat extends to a depth 
of 14 feet below the surface and corresponds in character to the plant 
remains which accumulated in Lake Washington. A_ bluish-gray 
find sand forms the underlying mineral substratum. An alternation of 
diatomaceous material is lacking and no sheet of volcanic ash was 
encountered. Although there is no interruption or change in the 
sequence such as that which marked the conditions at Lake Washing- 
ton, it is inferred that the sedimentary peat at both localities is the 
same and was laid down under corresponding conditions. _However, 
during its earlier period the valley floor of the Sammamish was being 
covered by deposits of sand and silt which the water carried at times of 
overflow. Eventually depressions formed in which water collected 


JUNE 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 201 


and stood for long periods. ‘The deeper water was filled with organic 
debris from hydrophilous vegetation until the mud flats became ex- 
posed, and reed and sedge marshes began to flourish in the drier por- 
tions of the basin. The bands of diatomaceous material at the shallow 
depth below the present surface as well as the woody material at the 
greater depths indicate that during the period of fibrous peat formation 
the depth of water changed and was accompanied by well-marked 
differences between plant communities, just as at Lake Washington. 


3. The Renton type profile 


At a point where the Duwamish and Cedar Rivers form a broad 
alluvial plain, deltas of sand occur at low levels along the eastern edge 
of the valley. They are bordered by an ill-defined swamp of shrubs 
and trees much of which is now under cultivation. One of the oldest 
agriculturally developed areas of shrub moor les about 3 miles 
south of Renton in T. 23 N., R. 5 E., section 30. It may be reached 
from Seattle by railroads and electric car lines. 

The peat layers of the Renton profile appear in a two-fold sequence 
and were observed in exposures along open ditches. Soundings 
obtained about 50 feet west of the main highway gave the following 
cross-section: The cultivated surface material consists of grayish- 
brown, crumbly, somewhat woody and silty sedge-reed muck, grading 
sharply into a brown, fibrous, compacted reed and sedge peat which 
contains rhizomes of Hquisetum sp. ‘The layer is usually found over- 
lying a band of bluish-gray silt in which occur diatoms and root- 
channels stained yellow from iron salts. The mineral material rests 
upon a layer of brown woody-fibrous sedge-and-reed peat and contains 
the plant remains from species of tule and Hquisetum. Irregularly 
distributed are logs of timber which may be driftwood or may indi- 
cate the occurrence of wooded islands in a wet marsh. The basal 
layer is essentially sedimentary peat material derived from aquatic 
plants and contains diatoms. The deposit is relatively shallow and 
usually about 5 feet thick. It rests on gray compact fine sand. 


4. The Auburn peat profile 


In the outer portion of the delta formed by White and Green Rivers, 
a deposit of peat occupies an isolated shallow water basin. It forms a 
divide with two divergent creeks, one flowing northward and the other 
southward. The area of peat is under cultivation, producing a variety 
of vegetables. It is located in T. 21 N., R. 4 E., section 23, about 1 
mile southwest of Auburn near the western bank of the valley floor. 


202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 11 


In stratigraphic features the profile resembles the Renton peat. 
The upper portion is generally well decomposed grayish-brown dia- 
tomaceous tule-reed muck and contains at the lower level woody 
fragments from conifers and deciduous shrubs. The basal portion of 
the profile consists of sedimentary diatomaceous peat and overlies a 
compact gray sand, somewhat clayey, containing occasionally fer- 
ruginous minerals. ‘The deposit averages probably between 3 and 4 
feet in thickness. ‘The band of silty diatomaceous material corres- 
ponding in character to that near the surface at Renton, is missing or 
probably worked over and mixed by cultivation. 


5. The Monroe type profile 


Areas of peat occupy the valley floor along many stretches of the 
Snohomish River. ‘The depth of these shrub and tree moors can not be 
inferred; it may be considerable. A main excavation in T. 27 N., R. 
6 E., section 1 southeast of Monroe, afforded a considerable length of 
exposure for measurement indicating a three-fold sequence in the 
profile. The area is under cultivation, chiefly head lettuce being 
grown for eastern markets. The following features were noted in 
exposed cross sections averaging 3 to 4 feet in thickness. 

The upper ten inches consist of cultivated dark grayish-brown largely 
decomposed woody sedge-and-reed muck. ‘This overlies a yellowish- 
brown compacted, coarsely fibrous and matted tule-reed peat containing 
flattened root-stocks of water lilies, arrow-grass, seeds of buck bean 
and others and a thin seam of sandy clay at the 18-inch level below the 
surface. The bed of mineral material usually directly overlies brown 
to dark-brown fibrous tule-reed peat, but a sharp separation from the 
latter is not always in evidence. A layer of woody peat with cedar 
and fir stumps 7n situ attains a thickness of 6 to 10 inches and forms a 
well defined stratum between levels of 26 to 32 inches below the 
surface. The basal layer is greenish-gray silty and clayey sedimen- 
tary peat in which are embedded rhizomes of several species of Hqui- 
setum, with roots of marsh plants extending downward into greenish 
sand below. 


LTT 
PROFILES OF PEATLANDS ON THE PLATEAUS 
The plateaus comprise the greater part of the Puget Sound region. 


They are comparatively level to rolling uplands and contain depres- 
sions at irregular intervals which represent former basins of lakes and 


JUNE 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 203 


ponds. The natural drainage of the peat areas of kettle-hole topog- 
raphy is usually very poor and the water holds as a rule only small 
amounts of mineral salts in solution which serve as plant food. The 
broader depressions are drained by small streamlets flowing in a 
tortuous course. 

Although the peat areas are quite disconnected and miles apart, 
they have very much the same character of surface vegetation. The 
plant communities are northern in range and consist chiefly of a ground 
cover of sphagnum mosses with sundew and cranberry, clumps of 
ericaceous heaths such as swamp laurel, labrador tea, and a dwarf 
birch (Betula glandulosa). A detailed account of this type of vegeta- 
tion has been given by Turesson (13) and Rigg (10). A domed 
surface or “highmoor’’ contour is only very slightly evident in one or 
more places. 

The extinction of the small ponds in sphagnum moors is usually 
accomplished by filling with fine flocculent organic debris forming 
sedimentary peat. The material is made up of ubiquitous forms of 
plankton and fragments derived from the encroachment of a floating 
margin of semi-aquatic vegetation. The plant communities represent- 
ing submerged or floating stages in the open water are dominated by pond 
weeds, bladderwort, water lily and water shield. The shore is occupied 
by purple marshlock (Comarum palustre) buck bean (Menyanthes 
trifoliata) and sedges whose strong fibrous rhizomes afford a frame-work 
for the support of mosses growing forward as floating islands. Near the 
rolling hills and ridges surrounding these depressions is the wooded 
portion of which the characteristic trees are cedar, fir, scrubby hem- 
lock (Tsuga heterophylla) and occasionally Sitka spruce between moss- 
covered hummocks. They are fore-runners of the evergreen conifer 
forest. 

The surface peat soils are mainly poorly decomposed spongy- 
fibrous sphagnum-moss peat. The results of the analyses reported by 
Rigg (11) and Thompson et al. (12) indicate that both the water and 
the moss peat of the bogs studied appear to be as leached and acid as 
the class of similar peat materials of the northeastern United States. 

No agricultural use is made at present of these deposits and little or 
no study has been made of the differences of podsol-like characteristics 
developed in the underlying mineral substratum. 


6. The Ronald type profile 


The area occupied by the Ronald bog lies in T. 26 N., R. 4 E., 
section 8, of Snohomish County. This moss moor is not shown on the 


204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 11 


Seattle topographic sheet. It is evidently a broad depression occupied 
by a three-layered accumulation of peat nearly 26 feet thick on a bed 
of drift sand and clay. 

Examining the nature of the profile from the bottom upwards it 
appears that an outlet of the former lake was established relatively 
early. This is confirmed by the thin layer of sedimentary peat which 
averages only 3 feet in thickness. Diatomaceous material overlies the 
sandy substratum and an olive-brown colloidal detritus is found in the 
upper portion of the basal layer. 

The course of development continued through a stage of plant suc- 
cession no longer represented on the mainland at present. This is 
seen from the layer of yellow-brown poorly decomposed hypnum-moss 
peat. The plant remains accumulated to a thickness of 4 feet and 
overlie the lower layer of amorphous sedimentary peat. 

From the stage of predominating hypnum mosses the area became 
subsequently a marsh inhabited by reeds, tule, and sedges. The peat 
material derived from them is coarsely fibrous, brown, matted to felty, 
and only partly decomposed. ‘The thickness of the layer is nearly 16 
feet and bears witness to accumulation over a considerable period of 
time. 

A sheet of volcanic ash several inches thick found about 9 feet 
below the surface, denotes a critical stage in the history of the region. 
It does not appear, however, that the original flora had been wholly 
destroyed by the heavy fall of ash which covered the surface of the 
ancient marsh. The plant remains above the bed of volcanic ash 
indicate that the vegetation survived under the conditions following 
the voleanic activity. The soundings are not sufficient to indicate the 
direction of the wind-blown ash but the eruption was situated prob- 
ably to the west on the coastal range of mountains. 

Following the marsh stage, the course of development culminated in 
the invasion of sphagnum mosses. The surface layer of peat consists 
of over two feet of reddish-brown fibrous moss peat in which are 
embedded roots of heaths. A thin seam of black charred organic 
material separates the moss peat from the underlying sedge peat. 
The exact cause of the fire is difficult to conjecture. The replacement 
of the sedge marsh by the sphagum mosses denotes changes in the 
level and character of the ground water. The mosses succeeded in 
suppressing the marsh plants and established themselves in relatively 
recent times. 


JUNE 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 205 


7. The Esperance type profile 


The Esperance bog is an area of peat near the boundary line between 
Snohomish and King Counties and is located in T. 27 N., R. 4 E., 
section 31, south of the Ronald bog. It surrounds a small pond of 
open water. 

The most striking feature of the profile is the complete absence of 
any layer of sedge or reed and tule peat. Floating mats of sphagnum 
mosses, supported by rhizomes of a few sedges and by the branches of 
ericaceous shrubs, have reached out to the open water. ‘Test borings 
were made near the margin of the pond. They indicate that a nearly 
pure growth of sphagnum mosses, sinking down by continual growth, 
has filled the water basin with loose, soft and spongy-fibrous moss peat 
to a depth of nearly 20 feet. Methane gas was observed to escape 
from various levels below the surface. The moss peat grades more or 
less sharply into oozelike diatomaceous sedimentary peat 12 feet thick 
at the point examined. The mineral substratum varies from bluish- 
gray clay to gray sand. 

The occurrence of a sheet of voleanic ash at a depth between the 28 
and 29-foot level is of interest as indicating the former extent of the 
ash cover. The volcanic material is of the same color, composed of 
similar fine-grained minerals resembling crushed glass, and is seem- 
ingly related to the ejected material in peat profiles north and east of 
this locality. 


S&. The Hooven peat profile 


The Hooven bog is another one of many typical “kettle hole’”’ 
moss moors in the Puget Sound region. The peat area is shown on the 
Seattle topographic sheet, and lies about 2 miles southwest of Maltby 
in Snohomish County, in T. 27 N., R. 5 E., section 35. The general 
shape of the pond in the bog is circular. It has neither an inlet nor 
outlet. In its general aspects the zonal arrangement of the plant 
communities is very much like that described above; submerged and 
floating stages with many species of aquatic plants merge with the 
encroaching shore-line vegetation, and the zone of sphagnum mosses 
together with the ericaceous associates and clumps of shrubs continues 
into the boggy woodland of evergreens. 

The maximum depth of the test borings exceeded 28 feet. The 
morphologic features of the two-layered water-logged profile bear the 
closest resemblance to the cross section of the Esperance bog. The 
upper layer is a relatively pure reddish to yellowish-brown spongy- 


206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 11 


fibrous and poorly decomposed sphagnum-moss peat. The lower 
layer consists of sedimentary peat which contains numerous diatoms 
and a sheet of voleanic ash between the 23 and 24-foot level below the 
surface. The underlying mineral substratum is sand and clay. 


9. The Cottage Lake type profile 


The location, form, and dimensions of this area of peat are shown on 
the Seattle topographic sheet in T. 26 N., R. 6 E., section 17 of King 
County. It is drained by a small streamlet emptying into Sam- 
mamish Lake. A shallow excavation has been dug just west of the 
highway, making a section about 2 feet deep and over 50 feet square. 

The excavation and additional soundings show that this portion of 
of the peat area consists of a four-layered profile. The surface layer 
is composed of 6 feet of brown fibrous sphagnum-moss peat pene- 
trated by roots and stems of woody perennials. Alternating bands and 
thin streaks of dark partly disintegrated moss peat are of frequent 
occurrence and the material is somewhat more compact toward the 
lower level. 

There appear to be no stumps except in a single layer of woody- 
fibrous peat which contains partly decayed logs of fallen and sub- 
merged timber between 6 and 7 feet below the surface. 

Underlying the layer of woody-fibrous peat follows a brown to 
yellow-brown fibrous layer of tule-reed peat 8 feet thick which emits 
methane gas at different levels. In places the sounding instrument 
penetrates thin beds of woody material which represent the remains of 
alder thickets and ericaceous shrubs; they indicate temporary drier 
stages of the marsh. 

A thin sheet of voleanic ash lies near the bottom of the tule-reed 
peat, about 15 feet below the surface. | 

The underlying basal layer consists of olive-green diatomaceous 
sedimentary peat. At a considerable distance below, approximately 
at the 25-foot level, appears a second sheet of volcanic ash overlying a 
firm olive-brown flocculated organic sediment. The bottom is clay 
and is reached at a depth of 41 feet. 


10. Lake No. 12 peat profile 


atthe typical occurrence of the four-layered sequence in the Cottage 
Lake peat profile may be observed also in the peat area bordering Lake 
No. 12 east of Auburn in T. 21 N., R. 7 E., section 7 of King County. 


JUNE 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 207 


Soundings about 100 feet east of the western border of the peat area 
yielded complete sections for detailed comparison. 

There are resemblances in the upper layer of sphagnum-moss peat 
and in the underlying woody material with its stumps of conifers which 
bear evidence of fire, and their later disappearance and burial by the 
invasion and establishment of sphagnum mosses. 

From the 8 to the 21-foot level of the cross section is a massive layer 
of sedge-and-reed peat with beds of hypnum-moss peat near the 15 to 
17 and the 18 to 20-foot levels. A thin sheet of ochreous-yellow 
mineral occurs in the fibrous sedge peat at the 14-foot level, which 
must have been washed in by the action of water. Over the top section 
of the mineral material sedimentary organic debris is embedded in 
fibrous plant remains derived from sedges. 

The basal layer is sedimentary diatomaceous peat and underlying it 
is light gray, compact sandy clay. 


11. Evans Creek type profile 


This area of peat is a heath moor with an open growth of conifers. 
It lies southeast of Redmond in T. 25 N., R. 6 E., Section 22 of King 
County, and is traversed by Evans Creek which empties into the 
northern end of Sammamish Lake. 

Test borings made south of the highway show that the cross section 
presents a three-fold sequence of peat layers. The upper layer is 6 
feet thick. It consists of a thin cover of dark-brown largely decom- 
posed sphagnum-moss peat containing dry leaves of heath shrubs, 
charred debris from occasional fires, and slender rootlets of the grow- 
ing surface vegetation; this grades sharply into brown to yellow-brown, 
spongy-fibrous, more or less poorly decomposed moss peat in which 
water stands approximately 18 inches below the surface. Below the 
moss peat follows a layer of woody-fibrous dark-brown heath peat, 13 
to 2 feet thick, in which are embedded coarse fragments of woody 
material from conifers, and a large proportion of partly fibrous sedge 
peat. Obviously at some time before the sphagnum mosses estab- 
lished themselves, heaths such as Ledum, Kalmia, and islands of 
scrubby conifers, were growing upon a thin mat of sedges that had 
closed by encroachment a senescent lake. ‘The basal layer is diato- 
maceous sedimentary peat underlain by coarse gray sand. The total 
thickness at the points sounded measures 13 to 15 feet. A close ex- 
amination showed no evidence of the presence of seams or sheets of 
voleanic ash. 


208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 11 


SUMMARY 


1. In the Puget Sound region two different groups of peatland 
or moors can be distinguished. Both arise and develop from an 
initial aquatic vegetation, followed by marsh-plant communities; both 
may culminate in the coniferous climax forest of the region. In other 
respects, however, there is no parallelism between the two groups. 
The first group continues in so far as the marsh stage is concerned 
and may be succeeded by a mixed deciduous-shrub and conifer-tree 
growth. The second group deviates from the first one by the stage 
developing from the spreading of sphagnum mosses which eliminate 
and ultimately supplant both the marsh and shrub vegetation units. 

2. Pedologically the areas of peat may be broadly divided into two 
groups and 7 types. In the first group are the relatively productive 
mesotrophic lowmoor peatlands which have fibrous or woody-fibrous 
reed-and-sedge peat at the surface. They occupy the broad valleys 
of streams in which temporary floods occur during the wet seasons 
favorable to a luxuriant growth of herbaceous grasses and sedges and 
ligneous deciduous-shrub vegetation. The peatlands are character- 
ized by two- and three-layered limnogenic peat profiles. In the second 
group are the comparatively unproductive highly acid oligotrophic 
areas of peat which contain a surface layer of fibrous sphagnum moss 
peat in varying thicknesses. They occupy depressions upon rolling 
uplands into which water entered of necessity by rainfall and seepage 
and consequently remained deficient in the mineral salts that are so 
effective in the flood plain. The peat areas are moss-and-heath 
moors characterized by two-, three-, and four-layered, limnogenic peat 
profiles, having a high water table. 

3. The deeper depressions show evenly distributed sheets of pure 
cream-colored volcanic ash which forms a well defined and sharply 
separated cover over the plant remains of the remoter period. The 
ash cover extends for miles and must have fallen directly upon the 
ancient lakes and marshes. It did not bring to a sudden close the 
vegetation of that period; the same variety of forms and the same 
succession of generations of plants appear to have continued in the 
open water basins and marshes. 

The layer of volcanic ash seems to diminish in thickness in an east- 
ward direction and suggests the presence of active volcanic vents along 
the western border of the Puget Sound Basin from which showers of 
erupted material were drifted by the action of prevailingly westerly 
winds. The data at hand are not sufficient to place in their proper 


JUNE 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 209 


chronological order the sheets of volcanic ash recorded at different 
depths in the widely separated peat deposits. 


4. No evidence has been obtained in the profile features of the Puget 


Sound peat areas to indicate a sinking of the land. The conditions 
appear to be favorable for assuming an appreciable re-elevation in 
geologically recent time. 


— 


10. 


Jibs 


12. 


13. 


14. 


15. 


LITERATURE CITED 


. Bretz, J. H. Glaciation of the Puget Sound region. Wash. Geol. Surv. Bul. 8. 


1913. 


. Byers, H.G. The water resources of Washington. Wash. Geol. Surv. Bul. 1, PartV: 


ile VOTE 


. DacHNowsKI-STOKES, A. P. and Wetts, B. W. The vegetation, stratigraphy and age 


of the “Open Land”’ peat area in Carteret County, North Carolina. This JouRNAL 
19: 1-11. 1929. 


. DacHNOwSKI-STOKES, A. P. Peat profiles of the Everglades in Florida: the strati- 


graphic features of the ‘upper’ Everglades and correlations with environmental 
changes. This JoURNAL 20: 89-107. 1930. 


. DacHNOWSKI-STOKES, A. P. Peat profile studies in Maine: The South Lubec ‘‘heath”’ 


in relation to sea level. This JouRNAL 20: 124-135. 19380. 


. DacHnowsx1-Stoxkss, A. P. Peat profiles of the Delta Land of California. Proe. 


and Papers Second Internat. Congress Soil Sci., U.S. S. R. 1930. In press. 


. Krupatu, J. P. Physiographic geology of the Puget Sound Basin. Am. Geol. 19: 


225-237, 304-322. 1897. 


. Maneum, A. W. Reconnaissance soil survey of the eastern part of the Puget Sound 


Basin, Washington. Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, U. 8S. Dept. of Agric. 
Eleventh Report (1909): 1517-1600. 1912. 


. Marpot, C. F. A scheme for soil classification. Proc. and Papers First Internat. 


Congress Soil Sci. 4: 1-31. 1927. 

Riee, G. B. Some Sphagnum bogs of the north Pacifie coast of America. Ecology 
6: 260-278, 1925. 

Riee, G. B., Toomerson, T. G., Loran, J. R., and Wituiams, K.T. Dissolved gases 
in waters of some Puget Sound bogs. Bot. Gaz. 84: 264-278. 1927. 

Tuomeson, T. G., Loran, J. R., and Riec, G. B. The acidity of the waters of some 
Puget Sound bogs. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 49: 2981-2988. 1927. 

Turesson, G. Lysichiton camtschatcense (L) Schott, and its behavior in sphag- 
num bogs. Am. Journ. Bot. 41: 189-209. 1916. 

VAN WINKLE, W. Quality of the surface waters of Washington. U.S. Geol. Survey 
Water-supply Paper 339: 1914. 

Wiuuis, B., and Smitu, G.O. Tacoma Folio 54, U.S. Geol. Survey, Geologic Atlas 
of the United States, 1899. 


210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 11 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Trophocrinus, a new Carboniferous crinoid 
genus... Epwin Kirk, U. 8. Geological Survey. 


Carboniferous crinoids of minute size have long been known but 
have not attracted the attention they deserve. It is hoped that with 
the present intensive study of micro-faunas a special effort will be 
made to discover and study these forms. In material kindly placed 
in my hands for study by Dr. G. H. Girty of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey was found a crinoid showing unique structural modifica- 
tions, which is here described as a new genus. In all 25 or more well- 
preserved specimens of the type species are available for study, 
comprising an unusually complete ontogenetic series. The specimens 
range in height from 0.75 millimeter to approximately 1.3 millimeters. 
There are smaller specimens, probably belonging to the species, but 
they can not be determined with certainty. 


Trophocrinus, new genus 


The orientation of the theca is based on the position of the largest, hydro- 
pore-bearing oral, which is posterior. 

Basal elements three in number, the smallest unfused plate being the left 
anterior. 

Radials five in number, varying considerably in width and somewhat in 
height. But one radial, the left anterior, has an arm facet. The outstanding 
structural peculiarity of the type species is an extraordinary hypertrophy 
of the left posterior and left anterior radials. The inner portions of these 
plates are produced upward, outward, and then inward to form a pouchlike 
chamber, opening toward the tegmen. Because of its close association with 
the single brachial appendage and by analogy with other echinoderms it is 
thought that this chamber may have served as a brood pouch. It will so be 
styled in this description. ‘There is an associated crinoid with a single arm 
facet on the left anterior radial but without the brood pouch. ‘This suggests 
the possibility that we have to deal with a sexually dimorphic type, but as this 
is obviously impossible of verification with fossil material the brood pouch is 
here held as one of the major distinguishing generic characters. 

In common with many of the Carboniferous crinoids the plates of the 
theca are minutely pitted. In the case of Trophocrinus and some other 
Allagecrinidae these pits seem to have a more or less regular arrangement 
on the radials and to be connected with structures within the plates. Whena 
radial plate is somewhat eroded a definite pattern is visible within the plate. 
In Trophocrinus as seen this is not as well shown as in some related forms, 
possibly owing to differences in erosion. In general within the plate may be 
seen a median series of vertical light and dark lines, running lengthwise of the 
plate. To either side are series of similar lines arranged horizontally and 
normal to the common suture between adjacent radials. As seen under 
various lighting conditions and immersed in different clearing media it would 
appear that there are series of tubules within the body of the plate, possibly 


1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received 
April 30, 1930. 


JUNE 4, 1930 KIRK: TROPHOCRINUS | 211 


connecting with the external pits. Their general similarity to hydrospire- 
folds and pore-rhombs is suggestive. Isolated plates examined on both sides 
show no signs of folds in the stereom, and whatever these structures are they 
seem to lie within the substance of the plate proper. 

Of the five orals the posterior is the largest and has a sharply defined 
pimple near the apex, which is undoubtedly the site of the hydropore. The 
posterior oral as in Allagecrinus meets only the right and left anterior orals 
at the center of the tegmen. The right and left posterior orals are much 
smaller and do not reach the center. 

Trophocrinus is referred to the family Allagecrinidae. 

The genotype is Trophocrinus tumidus, new species, from the Sycamore 
limestone (Mississippian) of Oklahoma. 





Trophocrinus tumidus, n. gen., n. sp. 


Figure 1. X 20. Viewed from left posterior interradius. 
Figure 2. X 18. Same specimen. Anterior view. 

Figure 3. X 18. Same specimen. Tegminal view. 

Figure 4. X 18. Same specimen. Basal view. 


Trophocrinus tumidus, new species 
Figs. 1-4 


Owing to the small size of the crinoids, details of structure can only be 
worked out and verified by the examination of a number of specimens. The 
individual here illustrated, one of the cotypes, is one of the largest and the 
only one in which the remarkable pouchlike structure is completely preserved. 
The magnification of Figure 1 is approximately 20 x, while that of the other 
three figures is approximately 18 x. The drawings were made by using a 
camera lucida attached to a binocular microscope and although semi-diagram- 
matic give an excellent idea of the crinoid. 


212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 11 


The specimen here figured has a height to the apex of the orals of slightly 
more than 1 millimeter and to the crest of the brood pouch of 1.2 millimeters. 
The posterior-anterior diameter is 0.6 millimeter, and the maximum diameter 
from the right anterior radius to the left posterior interradius is 0.9 millimeter. 
This specimen would appear to be of average adult size, comparing it with a 
dozen of the largest specimens found. 

The theca is subpyriform in shape and usually is somewhat asymmetrical 
in outline, not considering the great asymmetry introduced by the brood 
pouch. The relative proportions of the cup and tegmen may readily be seen 
in the figures. 

All the interbasal sutures are seldom shown in a single specimen. Ex- 
amination of a number of specimens, however, proves that there are three 
basal elements and the small unfused basal is the left anterior. 

The radials vary widely in size. The left anterior and left posterior 
radials are by far the largest. The anterior is usually the smallest. The only 
arm facet is on the left anterior radial, lying to the left of and at the base of 
the brood pouch. The brood pouch itself lies in the left posterior inter- 
radius and is formed by an upward extension of the left posterior and left 
anterior radials. The suture between the plates can clearly be fol!owed to 
the free margin of the pouch. The shape and size of the pouch may readily 
be seen in the figures. As preserved in this specimen the free margin appears 
smooth and unbroken, and apparently the complete structure is preserved. 
The wall of the pouch is of about the same thickness as the remainder of the 
radials. It constitutes then a chamber of considerable size opening toward 
the tegmen. In specimens where the pouch has been broken off the sub- 
triangular area is exposed which lies within the pouch and at the intersection 
of the radials and the left posterior oral. This space is filled with suberystal- 
line calcite. It appears that this space was not a simple opening into the 
theca. The imbedded horizontal tubules of the radials extend out into this 
calcite, and it is probable the space was filled with stereom but not as dense as 
that of. the thecal plates proper. 

The median portion of each oral shows as a subtriangular depression 
raising the areas along the sutures into rounded ridges. This is not well 
shown in the specimen figured, the tegmen of which is somewhat eroded. 
Near the apex of the largest oral is a well defined round protuberance, which 
undoubtedly marks the site of the hydropore. 

Horizon and locality—The specimens of Trophocrinus tumidus, together 
with other Allagecrinus-like crinoids and a minute Catillocrinus, were found 
in material collected by G. H. Girry, C. L. Cooprr, and others in ashale 
immediately below the main limestone ledge of the Sycamore limestone in a 
railroad cut south of Ada, Okla., in sec. 27, T. 3 N., R. 6 E. 


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Physical geography.—Peat profiles in the Puget Sound Basin of 
ALFRED - DACHNOWSKI-STOKES, occcccsccccccscccvcccasessssces 


Paleontology.—Trophoerinus, a new Carboniferous crinoid genus. _ EDV 


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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Von. 20 June 19, 1930 | No. 12 


PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.—The compressibility of rubber... L. H. 
Apams and R. EK. Gipson, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie 
Institution of Washington. 


Although many of the elastic properties of rubber have been investi- 
gated with very interesting results, no measurements have been made, 
so far as we know, of its cubic compressibility at high pressures. Those 
measurements which have been made at low pressures yield results 
varying from 93 x 10-* obtained by CLAPEYRON? to an estimate of 
the order of the compressibility of bronze (about 1 x 10-*) given by 
AmaGaT.? As the compressibility of rubber enters as a minor correc- 
tion into most compressibility measurements at high pressures, it is 
very desirable to have a reliable estimate of its value. In this com- 
munication we propose to give the results of experimental determina- 
tions of the compressibility at 25° of three samples of rubber which were 
furnished to us by Messrs. H. L. Curtis and A. H. Scort of the U.S. 
Bureau of Standards. 

The samples are described as follows: 

Sample A. Hard rubber from panel made by the Goodrich Com- 
pany. It is a rubber-sulfur compound containing no inorganic fillers. 
The total sulfur amounts to 27.4 per cent of which 0.21 per cent is free 
sulfur. The density is 1.149 at 27°C. 

Sample B. A rubber-sulfur compound containing 90 per cent 
smoked rubber and 10 per cent sulfur and vulcanized 105 minutes at 
300°F. Density = 0.990 at 25°. 

Sample C consists of pale crepe rubber 90.75 per cent, zine oxide 5 
per cent, sulfur 4 per cent, tetramethylthiuram disulfide 0.25 per cent. 
It was vulcanized for 30 minutes at 260°F. Density = 0.990 at 27° 

1 Received March 26, 1930. 


2 Compt. rend. 46: 208. 1858. 
3 See Lunpat, Ann. Physik 66: 741. 1898. 


213 


214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


Samples B and C were called soft rubber. 

The samples of rubber were cut into discs and built up to form 
cylinders approximately 20 cc. in volume. On such specimens were 
the compressibility measurements made. The technique employed 
for such measurements in this Laboratory has already been described 
in detail,t and may be summarized as follows. The rubber was placed 
in a heavy-walled steel cylinder and completely surrounded by a suit- 
able liquid. The volume of the liquid was then diminished by forcing 
a special piston into the cylinder and the pressure so generated read to 
one bar® by an electrical resistance gauge. The travel of the piston 
which was a function of the decrease in volume was measured by a 
dial micrometer gauge. The apparatus was calibrated at frequent 
intervals with a substance whose compressibility is accurately known— 
viz. cold rolled steel.6 In this way adequate corrections for the com- 
pressibility of the pressure-transmitting liquid, for the stretching of the 
bomb, and for the distortion of the packings were made. 

All readings were made by adhering rigorously to a definite pro- 
cedure. The pressure was first raised to 12,400 bars and then 
lowered to about 50 b. below 12,000. A pause was made for tem- 
perature readjustment and then the pressure slowly raised to as near 
12,000 b. as possible. After the piston displacement had been 
read, the pressure was lowered to 10,950 b. and after a pause brought 
back to 11,000 b. A reading was made and the process repeated 
for successively lower pressures at intervals of 1000 b. Unless a 
definite procedure is followed in all the experiments, serious errors 
from hysteresis in the bomb and packings are apt to be introduced. 
Especially necessary is it that the runs with the specimen under inves- 
tigation be made exactly like those with the standard steel. 

Results. The experimental observations which consist of two series 
of pressure and piston displacements, one for the rubber and one for the 
steel, are converted by a calculation which has already been described’ 
to a single table of pressures (Table 1) and the corresponding values 


* ADAMS, WILLIAMSON and JOHNSTON. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 41: 12. 1919; ADams 
and WILLIAMSON. Journ. Franklin Inst. 195: 475. 1923. 

51 bar (b.) = 106 dynes/em.? = 0.987 atmosphere. According to the International 
Critical Tables this is the only internationally accepted use of the word “bar,” although 
it has been used to mean 1 dyne per sq. cm. We advocate the more general use of the 
word bar instead of megabarye, which we have hitherto employed, to indicate 10° dynes/ 
em.?, particularly because of the convenience of the term “‘kilobar’’ which denotes one 
thousand bars (approximately 1000 atm.) and is the logical high-pressure unit. 

6 P.W. Bripeman. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 58: 166. 1923. 

7 ADAMS and WILLIAMSON. Journ. Franklin Inst. 195: 475. 1923. 

Apams and Gipson. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 12: 275. 1926. 


— 


, a 


a 


JUNE 19, 1930 ADAMS AND GIBSON: COMPRESSIBILITY OF RUBBER 215 


of — =e fractional change in volume of the rubber, — is being 
0 


0 
zero at 2000 b. Column A refers to the hard rubber, Column B to the 
rubber containing 10 per cent sulfur, and Column C to rubber with 4 
per cent sulfur. 
In order to smooth the results and to determine the volume change 
and compressibility at any pressure it is our custom to express — au 
0 
as a function of pressure—usually as a function of (p — 2000). With 
most solids this is comparatively simple, as a linear or quadratic equa- 
tion fitted to the data by the method of least squares represents the 
observations very exactly. 


TABLE 1.—EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 


AV i 
naa x 10? (Obs.) 


Pressure in bars (p) A B C 
12000 10.085 10. 463 222 
11000 9.442 9.864 10.608 
10000 8.733 9.217 9.922 

9000 7.994 8.528 9.200 
8000 Phe ee 7.780 8.410 
7000 6.267 6.967 23355 
6000 5.255 6.010 6.498 
5000 4.129 4.925 5.233 
4000 2.903 3.566 3.779 
3000 1.514 1.940 2.056 
2000 0.000 0.000 0.000 
1000 —1.692 —2.442 — 2.682 


The volume changes produced when rubber is compressed hydro- 
statically can not be represented by a quadratic equation. Indeed, 
the compressibility of rubber is more like that of a liquid than of a solid. 
At low pressures the compressibility is very high but it falls off rapidly 
at the higher pressures, the behavior being closely akin to that of a 
liquid. Up to the present no satisfactory equation has been devised 


for expressing — ou for liquids as a function of the pressure over any 
0 


considerable range of pressures. 

Among others,’ three equations involving four constants each were 
tried: (a) a cubic, (b) anhyperbola, (c) anexponential function. These 
three equations will now be discussed. 


’ Several other types of equations, based on the published equations of state, were 
tried but the results were not as good as those for the three equations which are discussed 
here. 


216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


(a) Cubic Equations. The first equation tried was of the form: 


y =at ba + cx? + dz (1) 
where, as throughout this paper, y = — a < 10° and x 22a : 
Vo 1000 


It was fitted to the three sets of results by the method of least squares. 
The results are summarized in Table 2 where the figures in the column 
labeled ‘‘obs.-calc.”’ refer to the difference between the observed value 
of y (Table 1) and those calculated by the following equations: 


y = —4 + 1603.42 — 80.672? + 2.1212? (1A) 

y = 18 + 2075.02 — 169.5222 + 6.67723 (1B) 

y= 8+ 2199.32 — 170.152? + 6.253523 (1C) 
TABLE 2.—REPRESENTATION OF RESULTS BY MEANS oF CuBIC EQUATIONS 

| Sample A Sample B Sample C 

if _ = <x 102 Obs.-Cale. _ = xX 102 Obs.-Cale. _ = xX 102 Obs.-Cale. 

(Calc.) Se (Calc.) ale (Cale.) ict 
12000 10.084 O21 10.493 —3.0 11.240 —1.8 
11000 9.439 0.3 9.830 3.4 10.579 2.9 
10000 8.746 —1.3 9.188 2.9 9.914 0.8 
9000 7.995 —0.1 8.527 Ort 9.211 —1.1 
8000 7.170 Od 7.807 —2.7 8.430 —2.0 
7000 6.261 0.6 6.990 —2.3 (Mae 0.3 
6000 5 255 0.0 6.033 —2.3 6.483 ta 
5000 4.137 —0.8 4.897 2.8 5.244 —1.1 
4000 2.897 0.6 3.543 De 3.116 0.3 
3000 12520 —0.6 1.930 1 2.043 La 
2000 —0.004 0.4 0.018 —1.8 0.008 —0.8 
1000 —1.690 ge2 — 2.233 — 20.9 — 2.367 —31.5 


Equation 1A represents the observations on hard rubber very satis- 
factorily. The deviations are so small that it was felt that no further 
computations were necessary for the hard rubber results. 

It appears, however, that a cubic equation does not give a good 
representation of the volume changes under pressure for the two sam- 
ples of soft rubber, the worst feature being the apparent failure of the 
equations at the top and bottom of the table. The large deviation 


at 1000 b. illustrates this clearly and if ay obtained by differentiating 


equation B is plotted against x it will be seen to pass through a mini- 
mum at 10,000 b., a cireumstance which is most improbable. 

We might conclude by saying that a cubic represents the fractional 
change in volume of hard rubber as a function of pressure very well, 
but that a cubic equation may only be used as a short interpolation 
equation with the two soft rubbers. 


JUNE 19, 1980 ADAMS AND GIBSON: COMPRESSIBILITY OF RUBBER 217 


(b) Hyperbolic Equations. Anequation of the type 
y (x + const.) = a + bx + cx? (2) 
was applied to the data for samples B and C. The results, given in 
Table 3 and calculated with the following equations are disappointing: 


y (a + 8.0) = 293 + 17290.4% + 145.832? (2B) 
y (« + 8.0) —206 + 18883.8x% + 130.612? | (2C) 


(c) Exponential Equations. The large decrease in volume at lower 
pressures which diminishes at high pressures suggests an equation 
of the type 


y=A+Bbe+Cl1—e- ) (3) 


As x gets large the last term of the equation approaches zero and we are 
left with the equation 


i — Aur vaisar® 
TABLE 3.—REPRESENTATION OF RESULTS FOR Two Types oF Sort RUBBER BY A 
HYPERBOLA 
Sample B Sample C 
. ay xX 102 (Calc.) Obs.-Cale. X 104 Ay 102 (Calc.) Obs.-Cale. X 104 
Vo Vo 

12000 10.432 3.1 11.205 ied 
11000 9.866 —0.2 10.608 0.0 
10000 9.247 —3.0 9.951 —2.9 
9000 8.565 —3.7 9.225 —2.5 
8000 7.806 —2.6 8.414 —0.4 
7000 6.953 1.4 7.498 3.0 
6000 5.982 2.8 6.452 4.6 
5000 4.861 6.4 5.238 —0.5 
4000 3.546 2.0 3.808 —2.9 
3000 1.970 —3.0 2.090 —3.4 
2000 0.037 —3.7 —0.026 2.6 
1000 —2.407 = 3.5 —2.708 2.6 


The value of D may be estimated graphically as follows. It will be 
seen that the logarithm of the second derivative of y with respect to x is 
d?y 


aa = log (—CD*) — De 


log 


4 
or that the logarithm of ae is a linear function of x whose slope is —D. 


From a table of x as argument and y as entry we determined the sec- 
ond differences which corresponded to the second derivative. The 
logarithms of the second differences were plotted against x and the plot 
was approximately a straight line whose slope gave us an estimate of D. 
Using this value of D we were able to get tentative values of A, B and 


218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


C (A’, B’ and C’) by substituting three of the observed values of x 
and y in equation 3, and hence calculating values of y at all pressures. 
The differences between y obs. and y cale. (Ay) were plotted and a 
smooth deviation curve drawn. This curve was represented by the 
equation: 

Ay =a-+ ba +c (1 — e-Dz) 


where D is the same as in the above calculation. 

It may easily be shown that by adding a, b and c to A’, B’ and C’ 
an equation is obtained which gives the fairest representation of the 
data possible with an equation of this type. 

The final equations were as follows: 


y = — 9 + 482.20 + 5967 (1 —e-°2) (3B) 
y = —45 + 484.852 + 6890 (1 —e-9-272) (3C) 


Calculations made with equations 3B and 8C are tabulated in Table 4. 


TABLE 4.—REPRESENTATION OF RESULTS FOR Two Typrs or Sort RUBBER BY AN 
EXPONENTIAL EQUATION 


Sample B Sample C 
Pp 
as Be S102 (Cale) | ObsrCale. sc 10 | = om 102 (Cale.) | Obs.-Cale. X 104 
12000 10.452 ; ea | ih MSY f —0.9 
11000 9.859 0.5 10.602 0.6 
10000 9.230 —1.3 9.929 —0.7 
9000 8.549 —2.1 9.198 0.2 
8000 7.804 —2.4 8.390 2.0 
7000 6.969 —0.2 7.484 pat 
6000 6.016 —0.6 6.445 ik 
5000 4.905 2 0) 5-35) —0.2 
4000 3.581 —1.5 3.800 —2.1 
3000 1.975 —3.5 2.070 —1.4 
2000 —0.009 0.9 —0.045 4.5 
1000 —2.498 56 — 2.666 —1.6 


Here, again, the magnitude of the residuals is greater than our esti- 
mated experimental error and undoubtedly equation 3 does not repre- 
sent the soft rubber results as well as the cubic equation represents 
those for the hard rubber. We would emphasize that the trend in the 
deviations of both the exponential and the hyperbolic equations, which 
is obvious from a study of Tables 3 and 4, should be taken as a warning 
that extrapolation with these equations is dangerous and that at best 
they are empirical interpolation formulae. On the other hand, we 


JUNE 19, 1980 ADAMS AND GIBSON: COMPRESSIBILITY OF RUBBER 219 


found that the course of a as calculated from equations 3B and 3C 


agreed very well with the course of the first differences of the observa- 
tions from 1000 to 11,000 b., and, moreover, the value of — a 
0 
between 1 and 2000 b. calculated from the equations 3B and 3C and 
corrected by the deviation curves agreed very well with our most 
reliable estimate obtained from a cubic passed through the points at 
1000, 2000 and 3000 b. 
Of all the equations fitted to the soft rubber results we prefer. the 
exponential one. It represents the results as closely as does the hyper- 
bola and is easier to handle. | 


For the hard rubber, smoothed reliable values of — au reckoned 
0 


from 2000 b. may be obtained at any pressure by application of 
equation 1A, but as, up to the present, we have found no equation 
which represents the data to the order of the experimental error 
and even the course of the deviation curves is doubtful, we have 


no way of obtaining smoothed and accurate values of — ee for the 
0 


samples of soft rubber. If it is desired to caiculate this at inter- 
mediate pressures, equations 3B or 3C may be used, which will give 


AV 
approximate values of — Tr when used alone, and accurate ones when 
0 


combined with the deviation curves. 

In Fig. 1 we have plotted values of the relative decrease in volume, 
= = reckoned from atmospheric pressure, against the pressure, for the 

0 

three samples of rubber examined. These curves serve to illustrate the 
volume changes undergone by each type of rubber under hydrostatic 
pressure and, moreover, indicate the consistency of our determinations. 
The points plotted in Fig. 1 are the observations taken from Table 1 to 
which has been added the average value of the volume change from 0 
to 2000 b. estimated by all the equations and their deviation curves. 


For sample A, the hard rubber, the values of — ell reckoned from 
0 


atmospheric pressure and corresponding values of the compressibility, 
8, are given by the equations 
V 
2 = = 19.515 xX 10-5 p — 9.34 x 10-1? + 2.121 x 10-“p: 
0 
B = I9.olo x 10-* — 18.68 x 10-™p + 6.386 X 10-4p’ 


220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 12 


where the pressure p is expressed in bars. These equations may be 
used directly to calculate the change in volume or the compressibil- 
ity at any pressure. 


Vo 


RELATIVE DECREASE tw VOLUME, -AV , 107 





O ean ee : 
O 2000 4000 GO000O 8000 10000 {2000 
PRESSURE 


Fig. 1. Relation between percentage change in volume and pressure for three samples 
of rubber. 


Equations 4B and 4C give very close approximations to the com- 
pressibilities of samples B and C respectively. 


b, = SE = 482.2 + 1730 02% (4B) 
a a = 484.5 + 1860 e-9.275 (4C) 


JUNE 19, 1980 ADAMS AND GIBSON: COMPRESSIBILITY OF RUBBER 22] 


Over the range from 2000 to 11,000 b. they are reliable, but if more 
accurate values are desired deviation curves may be constructed by 
plotting the figures in Columns 3 and 5 of Table 4 against the pressure 
x, determining the slopes at the required pressures and adding them to 
p — 2000 

1000’ 
where p is in b., we may convert equations 4B and 4C to a form in 
which the pressure is given in b. 


6, = 4.822 « 10-* + 30.90 x 10-* e —®.900292 (4’B) 
Be = 4.845 x 105° +4 31.92) < 10-*¢ —9-ere (4’C) 


Discussion of Results. The main results about the compressibility 
of rubber containing various amounts of sulfur are recorded graphically 
in Fig. 2, where they are compared with the compressibilities of a 
liquid, amyl alcohol; of a highly compressible solid, potassium;!° of 
sodium chloride," and of steel.6 As might be expected, the compres- 
sibility-pressure curves for the two types of soft rubber are closely 
akin to the curve for amyl alcohol, the liquid, and show little in 
common with the curve for NaCl or even for potassium. It is true 
that the compressibility of potassium is the same as that of soft rubber 
at zero pressure, but the compressibility-pressure curves are radically 
different, resulting in the compressibility of rubber at 12,000 b. being 
approximately one-third of that of potassium. ‘The compressibility- 
pressure curve of hard rubber (A) seems to be similar to that of potas- 
sium, being more like the curve of a compressible solid than that of a 
liquid. 

Unavoidable differences in the volume of rubber washers used in the 
piston of the high pressure apparatus result in the substitution of a 
small volume of pressure-transmitting liquid for rubber, or vice versa. 
We have just seen that the compressibility of rubber is not much less 
than that of organic liquids and so the magnitude of the correction 
introduced by the substitution of a few cubic millimeters of butyl 
ether for rubber is practically negligible. 

It is interesting to note that while soft rubber, sample B, is almost 
twice as compressible as hard rubber at atmospheric pressure, it is less 
compressible than the hard rubber at pressures above 5000 b. 
Undoubtedly the large amount of sulfur, 27 per cent in the hard 
rubber, has a decided influence on its compressibility, lowering it at 


the values of 6 calculated by 4B and 4C. As 2 is equal to 


*P. W. BripemMan. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 49: 53. 1913. 
10 P. W. Bripeman. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 58: 204. 1923. 
11 ADAMS, WILLIAMSON and JOHNSTON. Op. cit. 


222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 





28 


24 


20 


16 


N 


COMPRESSIBILITY, 8 x 10° 
> 00 





0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 
PRESSURE 


Fig. 2. Change of compressibility of rubber with pressure as compared with that of 
liquids and solids. 


JUNE 19, 1930 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: NEW POCKET MOUSE 223 


the lower pressures and keeping the value large at the high pressures. 
In fact, curve A might well be regarded as composed of two curves, the 
first similar to curve B and the second a straight line cutting the y-axis 
at 13.1 and of slightly negative slope. The compressibility of sulfur is 
13.1 at 1 mb.” and it probably exhibits the normal diminution with 
pressure. Fig. 1 shows that if the volume of a piece of hard rubber is 
100 cc. at atmospheric pressure, its volume at 12,000 b. is only 85.4 
ec. and that under a similar pressure change the volume of a piece of 
soft rubber containing 10 per cent of sulfur would decrease from 100 ce. 
to 82.8 cc. These figures emphasize in a striking way the very large 
changes in volume which are produced when a solid like rubber is sub- 
jected to large hydrostatic pressure. 


ZOOLOGY .—A new pocket mouse from southern Lower Calzfornia.! 
K. W. Neuson and E. A. GoLpMAN, Biological Survey. 


The occurrence of the large pocket mouse, Perognathus baileyt, 
in Lower California was first made known by Elliot (Field Columb. 
Mus., Publ. 74, Zool. Ser., vol. 3, April, 1903, p. 167) who described 
P. 6. rudinoris a dark form from San Quintin. Perognathus knekus 
Elliot, from Rosarito, San Pedro Martir Mountains, which was pub- 
lished at the same time (l.c. p. 169) was based, as comparison shows, 
on an unusually large specimen of rudinoris. A pallid subspecies was 
described from San Felipe, northeastern Lower California by Nelson 
and Goldman (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 42, March 25, 1929, p. 
104). Specimens from localities in the central and southern part of the 
peninsula had been referred to rudinoris, but more critical comparisons 
indicate the desirability of segregating the subspecies described as 
follows: 


Perognathus baileyi extimus subsp. nov. 
Southern Peninsular Pocket Mouse 


Type.—From Tres Pachitas, 36 miles south of La Paz, Lower California, 
Mexico (altitude 700 feet). No. 146672, 2 adult, U. 8S. National Museum 
(Biological Survey collection), collected by Nelson and Goldman, December 
25, 1905. Original number 18785. 


Geographic distribution.—Low elevations in Lower California from the type 
locality south of La Paz north to near Latitude 30°, intergrading to the north- 
ward with Perognathus baileyi rudinoris and P. b. hueyi. 


2 'T. W. Ricwarps. Journ. Am. Chem. Soe. 37: 1646. 1915. 
1 Received April 28, 1980. 


224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


General characters.—A light, buffy subspecies with nearly pure white fore- 
arms and grayish ears. Similar to P.b. rudinoris, but lighter, more buffy, the 
upper parts in general less heavily overlaid with black, and the sides decidedly 
lighter; outersides of forearms white, or nearly pure white, instead of distinctly 
suffused with plumbeous; ears clothed with grayish, instead of dusky hairs, 
and tail grayer above near base; skull slightly different. Darker and more 
buffy than P. b. hueyz, and skull differing in minor details. 


Color.—Type: Upper parts near pinkish buff (Ridgway, 1912), the top of 
head and dorsum moderately overlaid with black-tipped hairs, becoming 
thinner and less conspicuous on sides; a narrow, buffy lateral line present; 
under parts, fore limbs and hind feet white; ears thinly clothed with fine gray- 
ish hairs; tail above grayish brown near base, becoming purer brown toward tip, 
dull white below. 


Skull.—Closely resembling that of P. b. rudinoris, but braincase narrower, 
the narrowing mainly in the parietals and interparietal; mastoids and audi- 
tory bullae rather small, but closely approaching those of rudjznoris. Very 
similar to that of P. b. hueyz, but braincase and interparietal narrower; mas- 
toid and auditory bullae slightly smaller. 


Measurements.—Type: Total length, 198; tail vertebrae, 107; hind foot, 25. 
Average and extremes of three adult male topotypes: 194 (183-203); 108 
(99-114); 25 (24-27). Skull (type): Greatest length, 29; greatest mastoid 
breadth, 14.3; zygomatic breadth, 15.5; interorbital breadth, 6.9; length of 
nasals, 10.2; width of nasals (in front of incisors), 2.9; interparietal, 6.1 X 3.4; 
maxillary toothrow (alveolar length), 4.5. 


Remarks.—The range of P. b. extimus, embracing the lower elevations in the 
central and southern part of the peninsula, marks the extreme southern limit 
of the distribution area of the species asa whole. The new form differs mainly 
in light, buffy color from the distinctly darker subspecies rudinoris of the 
northwest coast region, and from the grayer race huey2, inhabiting the desert 
region east of the San Pedro Martir Mountains. The cranial characters are 
slight and comparatively unimportant. Specimens from as far north as the 
Vizcaino Desert west of San Ignacio may be regarded as nearly typical. 
Those from farther north grade, along the eastern and western sides of the 
peninsula respectively, toward the more northern forms. Specimens from 
Punta Prieta on the western side near latitude 29° are rather dark and indicate 
an approach to rudinoris, but seem more properly assignable to the present 
form. Specimens from Calamahue and Onyx on the eastern side of the penin- 
sular are near typical extimus in general color, but in somewhat broader skulls 
tend toward huey. 


Specimens examined.—Total number, 54, all from Lower California as 
follows: Calamahue, 11; Calmalli, 3;: Comondt, 1; Matancita, 1; Onyx, 1;° 
Punta Prieta, 5; San Bruno, 2; San Francisquito, 1; San Ignacio, 18;° San 
Ignacio (20 miles west), 4; San Jorge, 1; Santa Rosalia (10 miles west), 1;° 
Tres Pachitas (type locality), 5. 


® Two in collection San Diego Society of Natural History. 

> Collection San Diego Society of Natural History. 

¢ Thirteen in collection Museum of Vertebrate Zoology; two in San Diego Society of 
Natural History. 


JUNE 19, 1930 COBB: DEMANIAN VESSELS IN NEMAS 225 


ZOOLOGY .—The demanian vessels 1n nemas of the genus Oncho- 
laimus; with notes on four new Oncholaims.: N. A. Coss, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 


Continuing the work of deMan, 1884, and zur Strassen, 1896, observations 
have been made on Adoncholaimus fuscus (Bastian), Metoncholaimus pris- 
tiurus (zur Strassen) and other Oncholaims (listed on p. 227) with particular 
reference to the system of tubular organs discovered by deMan. Building 
on the foundation laid by these eminent observers, it has been possible to 
define the demanian system, and, within limits, assign it a function. The 
following definition and table of homologous terms, together with the accom- 
panying text appreciably advance our knowledge of this remarkable system 
of organs. 


DEFINITION 


Demanian Vessels:—In adult female nemas (Oncholaims) a complicated 
double system of efferent tubes; connecting, (1), with the middle or posterior 
part of the intestine through an osmosium (see p. 230), and (2), with the 
uterus (or uteri); these two efferents being confluent at a special glandular 
“gateway,” the uvette (see p. 229), and emptying thence backward and 
outward, through one or two ducts having more or less moniliform affluent 
glands (see p. 228, Fig. 1). Normally, the ducts lead to exit pores in the 
body wall, usually laterad, one or more on each side, near the base of the tail. 

In certain cases at least, apparently homologous tubular organs connect 
with the gonad of the male near the beginning of the vas deferens. For 
example, in Metoncholaimus pristiurus, Adoncholaimus fuscus and Oncho- 


1 Investigations carried on in part at the U. 8. Fisheries Biological Station, Woods 
Hole, Mass. The abbreviations used are mostly self-explanatory; e.g. onch dsl, (on- 
chium dorsale), dorsaltooth. Received May 15, 1930. 


226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


laimium appendiculatum I observe a tubular glandular vessel, outstretched 
forward and emptying backward into the vas deferens, that appears homol- 
ogous with parts of the better known demanian system of the females. See 
Higy 2. 

In female nemas the functioning demanian vessels (e.g. pristiurus) elabo- 
rate a copious, elastic, sticky, non-water-soluble, nearly colorless secretion, 
possibly utilized (‘‘spun’’?) during agglomeration and copulation, and also 
presumably to protect and preserve the batches of eggs after deposition and 
during segmentation. 

The demanian organs seem to prevail in mud-inhabiting, and sand-inhabit- 
ing oncholaims,—i.e. those of stagnant habitat; and to be absent or less 
prevalent in oncholaims living in more thoroughly oxygenated water,—on the 
surface of eelgrass, and among algae, e.g. in Prooncholaimus Micoletzky, 
1924. | 

Origin. As to the primitive nemic tissue from which the demanian vessels 
may have originated, we seem driven to accept the primitive gonadic tissue as 
the probable source. The histology of the demanian system reminds one 
most strongly of the structure of nemic gonads; most of the histological 
elements known in the demanian system have homologues in the gonadic 
system of nemas;—while on the contrary there is no such tunic, and there 
are no such forms of nuclei, known in connection with the enteron. 


Equivalent terms of various authors 


Author, de Man Author, zur Strassen Author, present 
Roéhrenférmiges Organ Rohrenférmiges Organ Demanian System 
Organe tubiform 


Hauptrohr (fuscus) Stammrohr Enteric efferent 
Canal principal (albidus) 


Verbindung zur Stiitze Offene Verbindung Osmosium, or Selective demanian 


Blindes Vorderende Miindungsorgan intake (enteric) 
Verbindungsréhrchen zwischen No mention Uterine efferent 


Warze und Uterus 
Tube de communication 


Ausfiihrungsgang in den Uterus Blindgeschlossener Sack Demanian intake (uterine) 


Warze Rosette Uvette 
Papille ovulaire 


Rothbraune driisen (fuscus) Endschlauch des Rohrorgans Moniliform Glands 
Tubes latereaux (albidus) 
DIAGNOSES OF THE GENERA AND SPECIES MENTIONED HEREIN 


ONCHOLAIMINAE Filipjev, 1918 and 1925 


(but without Anoncholaimus, Pelagonema, Anoplostoma, Trilepta, Krampia, 
Filipjevia. ) 


JUNE 19, 1930 COBB: DEMANIAN VESSELS IN NEMAS 220 


ONCHOLAIMIUM, n. gen. 


Monodelphie Oncholaiminae with demanian system, whose males have a 
versatile, preanal, ventral appendicule. See Figs. 2 and 3. 


at 15 66 16. 25°74, 
Oncholaimrum appendiculatum, te BE ges Beeeterenses P32 73.3mm 
n.sp. Oncholaimium with appar- 15)00% 46.00. BORA 1. 98-T 9 9 
1.50057 B41. 24 Big a ae 


ently deteriorated moniliform 
glands without exit pores, and with very simple ampulliform uvette. Appen- 
dicule ‘‘hinged” and mobile. Figs. 2, 3, 8, 9. Moniliform glands 24-fold, 
(8+ 16). Exceptionally 32-fold. 


Oncholaimus mnigrocephalatus 98......7:4....16...... ean 97. 
_ nigrocep fitch Merce cn gua dance 2 ae ty eee 
n. sp. Oncholaimus with very 14 09 16 = 2M 96.2... 
slightly compound, non-refrac- 17 7 19 22 2.3 i~ 1.3 


tive uvette, pigmented head, and hemispheroid, immobile, preanal, ventral 
male supplement; demanian system with two rather inconspicuous exit pores, 
each laterad; cells of the rouleaux (moniliform glands) oblique, little flattened. 


; - 7 5.1 fi. 25 FQ. . 
Oncholaimus Serpens, 0.Sp._ On es ane a ee naeeeeuce: 282. >4.5mm 
cholaimus whose moniliformoz 7 12. som 97.6. 44 
iB oN reason HORA AE Obra Ripa PORE ee cos «ir 8 


glands are vaguely seriated but not Merb ite Le 1.1 are 


in rouleaux. Compound uvette not condensed and refractive. 


Metoncholaimus pristiurus (z. 9-8....59... 13.0000, SHG.) Sh We 96-24 sgmm | 
5 08/7 1.35 1.4 1.5 0.7 aS 
Str.). Specimens from Woods o8 53,.4......,.,.88Mx...... B61 yale 
Hole gave the opposite measure- %8/ 12 15 SEC 
ments. Moniliform glands 64-fold. 
; : 1.4 C.E 17. ose 95.3 
RMONCHOLOLNUS PAnICUsS,N. SP. {2732 25° 7 ane poop Sasceens > Adem 


Adoncholaimus having a transverse row of seven demanian exit pores on each 
side. See Fig. 7. 


Adoncholaimus fuscus (Bast.). Moniliform glands 8- or 16-fold,—see Fig. 1. 


One soon appreciates the weight of zur Strassen’s words where he says, 
in speaking of the demanian system of various oncholaims,—‘‘In fact, the 
differences are such that, were they equally pronounced in any other system 
of organs, they would lead to the proposal of separate genera, or even families.”’ 

In this connection the present studies lead to the belief that the demanian 
system not only varies markedly in the different groups of oncholaims, but 
that in all probability the system is present but has been wholly overlooked in 
many of the forms described. Hence it seems premature to attempt a com- 
plete subdivision of the oncholaims into genera and subgenera. It may be 
doubtful whether the genera and subgenera so far proposed are natural ones. 
In particular, Oncholaimus, the group connected with the type species 
attenuatus, seems chaotic; yet no better course appears, at present, than to 
leave serpens and nigrocephalatus in this ill defined group. 


228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


Pristiurys 





OL 
ut 
Ua 
int 





of in 


Wb 








ime: 8S 


ow dt! 


osmosium 


*: uvette 


fuscus 






wpette ig 


Fig. 1. Amended diagrams of the demanian system of 
Metoncholaimus pristiurus (dorsal view) and Adoncho- 
laimus fuscus (side view), modified from the diagrams 
of zur Strassen and deMan respectively. eff int, 
enteric or intestinal efferent; eff ut, uterine efferent; 
vlv, vulva; ov det, oviduct; gl cdl (3), the three caudal 
glands; gl monl, the moniliform glands; porus, exit pores 
of the demanian system. Notice that in each case the 
uvette empties through a minute pore, the uvette pore. 
The moniliform glands in pristiurus are 64-fold; in 


fuscus 8- or 16-fold. 


Uterine Efferent. An examination of Met- 
oncholaimus pristiurus (zur Strassen) furnishes 
convincing evidence that the interesting female 
organ described by zur Strassen is connected not 
only with the intestine, as he discovered, but also 
with the uterus by means of a tube (see eff ut, 
Fig. 1) extending forward from the uvette,—i.e. 
from the “‘rosette”’ of zur Strassen. The evidence 
is as follows: In many female specimens it is 
possible behind the vulva to follow backward 
from near the vulva a long, narrow, apparently 
(not really) vacant space, reminiscent of the 
uterine efferent of Oncholaimium appendiculatum 
(see Fig. 3) which on more careful examination 
proves to be a duct. This duct, however, is not 
so refractive or of such uniform diameter as in 
appendiculatum, and is even more difficult to see. 
It varies slightly in diameter. Here and there 
throughout its length it can be seen to have a thin, 
double-contoured wall containing small but 
definite, much elongated nuclei. This tube is 
usually in a collapsed condition, more often pre- 
senting its edge toward the observer, but some- 
times not. When it is presented edgewise, one 
may often detect in its thin wall the scattered 
elongated nuclei, especially in specimens fixed 
and stained in acetic acid methyl green; occa- 
sionally nuclei can be seen also in other views 
Examining the requisite number of specimens 
leads to the conclusion that from the uterus near 
the vulva the duct arises dorsad as a broad tube, 
directed backward, which narrows rapidly and ex- 
tends along the right side of the nema,—approxi- 
mately along the right: lateral chord though 
not necessarily exactly opposite,—and, expanding, 
joins and envelopes the uvette. See Fig. 1. 


JUNE 19, 1930 COBB: DEMANIAN VESSELS IN NEMAS 229 


Uvette*. The ‘‘warze” of deMan,—i.e. the “rosette” of zur Strassen,—is 
the structure to which I apply what seems the more appropriate name 
‘““avette.”’? Comparisons show that, notwithstanding the very marked dif- 
ferences in form, the various organs herein called uvettes are homologous; 
the same is true of those called moniliform glands. 

The uvette of Adoncholaimus fuscus (Bastian) as illustrated by deMan 
probably presents 32 elements (K6rnchen, deMan’s Fig. 29) as does that of 
M. pristiurus; these elements have been outlined by deMan and figured some- 
what more in detail by zur Strassen (deMan’s Figs..24, 29; zur Strassen’s 
Figs. 13, 14). 

In favorable specimens I have seen the uvette of fuscus to be a “‘radial’’ 
structure made up of about 32 elements surrounding a minute pore, somewhat 
as in the uvette of pristiurus, (See Fig. 1) but the elements here are far less 
refractive. Rarely can one see the appearance illustrated by deMan in his 
figure 29; whereas the appearance he does not satisfactorily illustrate,—a 
very complicated one, by the way,—is the usual appearance; and when this 
appearance is more pronounced, commonly the minute refractive ‘“‘K6rnchen”’ 
that deMan figures are not to be seen, or only some of them faintly. DeMan’s 
“Kugel,” figured by him as if nearly round, I find seldom round or ball-shaped; 
frequently it is so ‘‘collapsed”’ (?) as to be difficult to see at all, and it is more 
likely to be elongate or ellipsoidal, or perhaps flattish-ellipsoidal, than to be 
equidiametral as shown in deMan’s Fig. 29. 

DeMan does not give a thoroughly satisfactory description or figure of 
his ‘‘Warze.”’ In one of his figures (Fig. 29) I count 33 minute, circular, dot- 
like elements where he makes his ‘“‘Verbindungsréhrchen”’ join the ‘“‘Warze.”’ 
Occasionally I also see this appearance, and with about the same number of 
elements (32?). It is difficult to say as yet what the exact function of the 
uvette is, but it seems a regular, doubtless glandular, component of the 
demanian system. In Oncholaimium appendiculatum the uterine vessel, 
extending backward from the uterus, nearly as described for pristiurus, 
finally expands a trifle into a small, often rather indefinite, ampulliform 
uvette of the very simplest character, which joins the right subdorsal of the 
two longitudinal series of cells,—the moniliform glands,—by means of a 
minute refractive pore,—the uvette pore. See wv, Fig. 3. In Oncholaimus 
nigrocephalatus the uvette, which in O. appendiculatum appears as a simple 
ampulla, becomes somewhat compound; that is to say, two additional or 
subordinate elements occur, one on either side of the main ‘‘ampulla,”’ so 
that the whole is rather obscurely triplex. 

In another oncholaim, Oncholaimus serpens n. sp., the uterine tube extends 
backward just as definitely as in Oncholaimium appendiculatum and joins 
the rest of the demanian system in the form of an expanded and muchlarger 


* Uvette; a diminutive cluster. From latin, wva, a cluster of grapes. 


230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


uvette, rather closely resembling one of the uvettes of 


Ape el ull 














: Adoncholaimus fuscus. 
|) on sum,” 


5 ....sensill 


SSN... nd mre 


PX pristiurus. 
det ren stan = spect carseat Ss Subtut 
if chrd lat 
af 
Were 










| gon, it. = 
il Jousx-see nd int. - . 
I soxet prin dint N 








| 
s Fig. 2. Male Oncholaimium appendi- 
27, culatum n.g.,n.sp., drawn from a fixed 
(tg and stained balsam specimen. The 
_locus of the cross section drawing is 
shown at locus x-sec. ac gon, accessory 
to gonad; al’m’nt, food material; 
; appndl, appendicule; chrsm hap 14, 
' __, ms haploid number of chromosomes; jnc 
re Ot; junction of testes; ncll spmct, 
nucleolus; ncl spmtd, nucleus of 

set sim? spermatid; org ing, organs of uncertain 
function; 0s ac gon, mouth of accessory 

SLIM +o gonad; spmct, spermatocyte; tst 
«175 ant,—front testis; 7, its cross-section. 


a IS CMe 


7 eieie 
Py 


In O. serpens the elements are not 
nearly so refractive, and the somewhat pyriform whole is 
not so symmetrical; but it is made up of radiating elements 
having some resemblance to those composing the uvette of 


Osmosium. Moniliform 
glands. In addition, I 
have established to my 
satisfaction that the main 
tube of the demanian sys- 
tem in Adoncholaimus fus- 
cus, which was described by 
deMan as probably being 
merely fastened anteriorly 
to the intestine, and there- 
fore regarded by him as 
probably merely a holdfast, 
is in reality in communica- 
tion with the intestine by 
means of what I have 
called an osmosium.* It 
has much the same struc- 
ture as that described by 
zur Strassen for Metoncho- 
laimus pristiurus and M. 
deMani (zur Strassen, Figs. 
4 to 12),—and which I 
have examined in prvs- 
tiurus,—except that there 1s 
no open communication. 
There are no essential differ- 
ences in the structure of 
the enteric junctions of the 


*Osmosium; that part of an 
emunctorium or analogous or- 
gan through which, mainly by 
osmotic action, soluble matter 
is transferred from one organto 
another. The osmosium is 
here not emunctorial. It is 
still doubtful whether the os- 
motic cells in this particular 
case are of enteric or deman- 
ian origin. While the staining 
of these cells seems to favor de- 
manian origin, the structure 
seems to favor enteric origin. 


JUNE 19, 1930 


various oncholaims I 
have examined, except 
minor ones in the more 
or less, but very ob- 
scurely, radiating part 
that sets into the wall 
of the intestine. This 
part forms an “os- 
motic”’ exit through the 
the intestinal wall in 
the shape of special, 
presumably metabolic 
and at least selective, 
glandular tissue of the 
osmosium. 

In the species Oncho- 
laamus nigrocephalatus 
there are external lat- 
eral exit pores in the 
anal region much as in 
pristiurus but they are 
minute. Thus far, how- 
ever, I have searched in 
vain for these pores in 
Oncholaimmum  appen- 
diculatum. 

In this latter species 
there are two monili- 
form subdorsal series of 
24 cells each which I 
propose to call monil- 
iform glands. These 
are rather close homo- 
logues of the 64-fold rou- 
leaux of zur Strassen; 
less obviously, of the 8- 
or 16-fold ‘‘Rothbraune 
drtisen” of deMan. The 
uterine vessel joins the 
right hand one of these 
moniliform glands, as 
is shown near the mid- 
dle part of figure 3 
on this page, at wv. 


COBB: DEMANIAN VESSELS IN NEMAS 


Fig. 3. Female of Oncholaimium 
appendiculatum n.g., n.sp., drawn 
from living specimen under slight 
pressure. The uterine efferent is 
shown from where it joins the uterus 
at ut eff to where it joins the right 
moniliform gland at uv, the uvette; 
gl monil, moniliform glands; gl 
dxt, the right hand moniliform 
eland; gl sns, left hand moniliform 
gland; crystal, tetrahedroid (?) ecrys- 
tals on the outer surface of the enteric 
efferent; eff int, the intestinal or 
enteric efferent; lum ut, lumen of the 
uterus; dct cdl, the three caudal ducts; 
chrd lat, borders of the right hand 
lateral chord; amph extr, external 
amphid; spm, sperm; ncl spm, nucleus 
of one of the sperms; trm ov, blind end 
of the single ovary; ov tegmt, shell of 
the egg; div secnd, second division of 
the nucleus of 
female gamete; amphatr__ 
plreyt, polarcyte; 
ov in dct, much 
elongated eggs sensilla: - 
passing through 
the oviduct from 
the ovary to the 
uterus; pst, pus- 
tules due to uri- , 
tis; grn bifr bire- 
fringent granules 
in intestinal cells. 


SCUCED ee 
Mv ee ee 


lim oe. 


CU SOM. Mit. UND 
MSC Wt. 


gl uo 


apn (chrsm 142) 
.. OD tegmnt 
... dv secnd 


sym. \\ WZ 


nel spi... \ 


Jumut.... 

1 re 

OOGON. 1. 4°" SS 

x175 or" cuesom msc am 


set hue)... ondsl_ pl Ib 


“subeut 


amp SP... 
at hy .....-. 
SOLE 
















MSC SOM. 
SU tue. 
(UGS oa hs cs 
dt MS... 


NUS... "| 


retm.. 5 jon 
g/mol? [ol dt 
chrd lat \ gl sns 
cay Som.\ nt 
gl cil a 




















-- gmord 


= gin bifr 









gm or 
heal ap 
hal o 


at cr At 


232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


In O. appendiculatum at the posterior end of the two 24-cell moniliform 
glands, however, a number of the cells of each organ seem loosened from the 
series; opposite these I am unable to find any outlet whatever ;—that is to say, 
the organs appear as if in a deteriorated condition. See gl dzt, gl snst, Fig. 3. 

Perhaps causally connected with this is the extraordinary fact that the 
examination of hundreds of females of Oncholaimiwm appendiculatum over 
a number of years has failed to disclose a single healthy specimen. Every 
female is attacked by a disease that often results in necrosis of the posterior 
portion of the nema. (See section Uritis, p. 240). The disease (uritis) 
breaks out on the tail in the shape of minute pustules having an internal 
radiated, or linear and “parallel-fibered,’ structure, pst, Fig. 3, sometimes 
extending forward for a considerable distance into the nema,—in extreme 
cases, as far forward as the vulva. There may be one, two, three, or even as 
many as a dozen of these pustules irregularly scattered on the posterior part 
of the female. The pustules are minute, exude, inter alia, an insoluble 
material, and frequently exhibit surface bacteria, though it seems doubtful 
if the bacteria thus far seen are connected with the disease. The uniform 
occurrence of this disease in females of Oncholaimium appendiculatum may 
perhaps be connected with the deteriorated (?) condition of the demanian 
system. Ona later page attention will be called to the fact that other on- 
cholaims possessing the demanian system have what appear to be similar 
diseases of the posterior extremity; but in none of them is there any such 
extraordinary condition as in O. appendiculatum, where examination has 
failed to disclose a single adult female free from uritis. 

Enteric Efferent. Against the idea that in Adoncholaimus -fuscus the 
anterior junction of the demanian system with the intestine is merely a hold- 
fast, as suggested by deMan, it may be urged that of other elongated organs 
known to lie loose in the body cavity of nemas, none are secured in this 
particular way to the intestine. Why an exception in this case? If it is 
merely a matter of security, it would seem more in harmony with known 
nemic anatomy that the attachment be to the body wall rather than to the 
intestine, and especially that it be effected along a lateral chord. It is not 
unheard of for a nemic organ of this general form to be attached to a lateral 
chord. 

From a mechanical point of view the idea that the connection of the 
demanian system with the intestine is merely a holdfast seems to have all the 
less to recommend it in the case of the monodelphic species, such as pristiwrus 
and serpens, where this connection is so far caudad that such a holdfast seems 
rather needless. 

DeMan’s idea that his main tube is simply and only fastened to the intestine 
seems not borne out by facts; and his figure 25, if I understand it, admits of a 
different interpretation. I find his ‘‘main vessel’ anteriorly to be hollow to 


JUNE 19, 1930 COBB: DEMANIAN VESSELS IN NEMAS 233 


its very end,—the ‘‘blind end” of deMan,—and that the freely moving con- 
tents of the tube are visible clear to what might be called the surface tissue 
of the intestine (tissue of the intestine altered, to be sure). DeMan’s figure 
25 seems easily to admit of this interpretation. I find the cells of the wall of 
the intestine (if they be really intestinal) are altered where the vessel is 
attached, and this fact suggests that we have here modified selective tissue ,— 
the osmosium,—the function of which is to extract from the intestine and 
usher into the demanian system, presumably mainly by osmosis, a product 
utilized by the latter. 

May not the evidence offered by zur Strassen for an open communication 
between the enteric efferent and the intestine in pristzuwrus,—i.e. the evidence 
of his microtome sections,—be capable of a different interpretation? Could 
zur Strassen’s sections have been deceptive? ‘The published figures of his 
“open connection” between the demanian. system and the intestine are not 
satisfying, in that they appear to show a large portion of the cell walls missing. 
Now pristiurus ingests mud, and, in consequence, its intestine normally 
contains much fine grit. Is it not likely that this grit, acting as it naturally 
would during the sectioning, would damage, or even destroy, delicate cells 
that, before being broken, might have closed the aperture which zur Strassen 
shows and describes as anopen connection? The suggestion is that this might 
occur, at the time the sections were cut, through the combined abrasive 
action of the grit and the coincident dulling of the microtome knife. All 
zur Strassen’s figures show the intestinal lumen more or less open; but when 
the intestine is entirely empty and free of grit zt 7s collapsed, not open, so that 
the lumen, in well made sections, is closed and difficult to see. May not this 
indicate that the vacant lumenal spaces shown in zur Strassen’s illustrations 
probably ded contain grit at the time of fixation, and hence, no doubt, at the 
time of sectioning? 

Pristiurus, fuscus and some other mud-inhabiting Oncholaims can be kept 
alive in pure running sea water for days, or even weeks, and when so kept 
evacuate the intestine very completely. Sections may then be made without 
the interference of the grit normally present in the intestine. J have not found 
such sections to present the appearance figured by zur Strassen. 

In an examination of very many specimens, alive and sectioned, I have 
never been able to convince myself of the existence of an open communication 
between the intestine and the demanian system. 

Any such open connection would seem a grave menace to the well-being 
of the organism. For if the enteric intake were of the nature figured and 
described by zur Strassen, there would seem to be little or nothing to prevent 
the entrance into the demanian system of undigested detritus contained in 
the intestine, together with numerous living microorganisms which normally 


234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


constitute a very appreciable part of the feces. No such detritus is ever 
seen in the demanian system. 

Furthermore, on examining living pristzwrus and fuscus, both of which I find 
to occur along Cape Cod, U.S. A., I find that when the food in the intestine 
is moving rapidly back and forth opposite zur Strassen’s supposed open 
connection, no portion of it ever enters the enteric efferent. There is not 
even the slightest corresponding disturbance of the contents of the lumen of 
the enteric efferent close by, which, as zur Strassen also points out, can be 
seen in the end portion of the demanian tube where it joins the surface of the 
intestine. 

Possibly the analogous connection with the uterus is hardly to be taken as a 
very distinctly open one. ‘True, I have seen cases in pristiurus where, when 
the diseased uterus was filled with microorganisms (microorganisms causing 
the disease*), the continuous mass of them also filled the nearby part of the 
corresponding demanian vessel in such a way that there was a direct “tubular” 
connection between the uterus and the vessel. Normally, however, the 
conditions are as follows:—One traces the uterine demanian vessel directly 
forward to the uterus, where its lumen continues for a short distance into a 
glandular tissue in the posterior end of the uterus,—zur Strassen’s so-called 
“blind end, behind the vulva,’’—and there ceases in the midst of a large 
number of uterine cells somewhat similar to many of those constituting the 
main portion of the wall, i.e. what seems to be a special collection of glandular 
uterine cells. In fuscus this same thing occurs where the oviducts join the 
proximal ends of the two uteri, not, as in pristzurus, at the posterior portion 
of the single uterus close to the vulva; the histology of this junction, however, 
is much the same in these two species. It is asif special uterine cells were 
devoted to secreting material to be delivered to the demanian system through 
the uterine efferent,—the “tube de communication” of deMan. 

In pristiurus the long tubular vessel connecting the uterus with the de- 
manian system,—the uterine efferent,—often is difficult to see, especially in 
its entirety. No better proof of this could be required than that it escaped so 
keen an observer as zur Strassen. 

Even in Adoncholaimus fuscus, while the two short uterine efferents can 
sometimes be followed from the uteri to the main vessel of the demanian 
system, often it is practically impossible in a given specimen to follow them 
throughout their course. Knowing their locality and structure, one can 
usually determine how they lie and their probable limits, but that is about all. 
Of course, in a small minority of favorable svecimens quite the contrary is 
true;—the entire tube can be made out satisfactorily as was first done by 
deMan. 


* This disease appears to have nothing to do with uritis (see p. 240); uritis seems an 
entirely distinct disease. 


JUNE 19, 1930 COBB: DEMANIAN VESSELS IN NEMAS 235 


Direction of Flow in the Demanian System. Evidently a considerable 
amount of matter is contributed by the intestine to the demanian system. 
Zur Strassen had no difficulty in assuming the entzre amount to be so con- 
tributed in pristiurus (for he appears to have been unaware of the connection 
in pristeurus of the uterus with the uvette, and hence with the demanian 
system). 

However, quite frequently in the contents of the enteric efferent of living 
Metoncholaimus pristiurus near and in front of the uvette pore, refractive, 
curved, wave-like effects are seen such as would be produced by the gradual 
mixing of two viscid fluids of unequal refractiveness,—an appearance that 
might readily be produced by the flowing of a liquid through the uvette 
pore from the uterine efferent into the enteric efferent in such quantity that 
some of it passed slightly forward,—perhaps through cover glass pressure. 

On various occasions, I have seen a considerable quantity of matter in 
the main enteric vessel close to its junction with the intestine. While this 
is no proof that this matter was actually derived from the intestine, it is 
favorable to that conception. Such matter never contains intestinal debris,— 
nor sperms (see F. H. Stewart, 1906), nor pseudo eggs,—“‘balls of finely gran- 
ular substance,” (see zur Strassen.) 

If the demanian system emptied znto the intestine, it is to be expected that 
it would do so through an aperture, pore, similar to those of other affluent 
enteric glands,—those emptying into the oesophagus for instance. In nemas 
such pores are extremely small, have a definite refractive lining, and are 
adapted to check any “backwash” due to movement of the contents of the 
enteron,—e.g. just such a structure as occurs in the uvette of pristiurus. 
But no such pore has been seen in connection with any enteric demanian vessel. 

Moreover, against the flow of any of the demanian fluids being toward the 
enteron, it may be urged that in pristiurus a special secretion is at times 
actually seen issuing rather copiously from the pores near the tail,—the 
external outlets of the demanian system,—and there is not the slightest 
reason to suppose that z2n this region the flow is ever anything but backward 
and outward. There is no evidence that the demanian system is, for in- 
stance, a water-vascular system; or that sea water is taken in through the 
antecaudal lateral pores. 

Again, there is little if any reason to believe the demanian system accessory 
to digestion, because whatever digestive function would be advantageous to 
adult females would seem also to be advantageous to the young nemas; yet 
there are no such organs in young oncholaims, for they come into existence 
at the last moult. The same may be said of any supposable ordinary excre- 
tory function. 

But if it be supposed that, for some unexplained reason, adult ege-producing 
females require to excrete (not secrete) matter peculiar to them, in other words 
that the demanian system, or some part of it, be a sort of temporary mal- 


236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


pighian system,—a rather violent supposition,—it would seem that the 
excretion, as such, if poured into the intestine at all, should be poured in 
posteriorly. But in didelphs,—fuscus, panicus,—such a supposition would 
pour it in near the anterzor end. Or, if it be supposed that the demanian 
system is simply an emunctorium accessory to the intestine and emptying 
outward and backward, then why the attachment to the fore part of the 
intestine as in fuscus? 

If the demanian system is excretory, then it is necessary to assume that 
the necessities of adult females in the way of excretion are different from those 
of the male or the young female. No reason has been advanced for such an 


assumption. 
Deduction by Elimination. In the demanian system of O. pristiurus 
three ducts come together at a single point, indicated by X in 1 2 


figure 4,—ducts in each of which a fluid may conceivably flow 
in either direction; i.e., there are six different paths along \\ d 
which fluid may be conceived to flow. The assumption is, of : / 
course, that, when the organs are functioning normally, fluid 
passes constantly in one direction only in each of the three x 
tubes, 1, 2, 3, Fig. 4. 

Indicating the six possible paths by arrows lettered a, b, c, af 
d, e, f (Fig. 4), mathematically, there are twenty possible i 
combinations in groups of three as follows: : 
aoc, ’abe, acd, “ach aly; bde, cde," *cef!""Cefs. CDeEF. 
abd, abf, ace, ade, bcd, bdf, cdf, aef, bceand def;— eng e eee 
this is according to the formula for combinations, sible currents. 


a 


——s 


n(n—1) (@m-2)...... (n—r-+1) ‘" TRS see! 
r! on Oe ae! 


= 20, when n = 6andr = 3. 





Fig. 5. Diagram showing the direction of flow of the fluid in the demanian system. 
The intestine and the posterior end of the uterus are shown near bde. The backward 
flow of the fluid in the enteric and uterine efferents is indicated at b and d, and the 
backward flow of their combined products at e. The outward flow of the fully elabo- 
yates secretion after it has passed the moniliform glands is shown by the two oblique 

ack arrows. 


It is evident that a combination containing a and 6 represents a physical 
impossibility, i.e. represents opposite currents simultaneously in the same 
duct,—duct number 1; and so with combinations containing c and d, and e 


JUNE 19, 1930 COBB: DEMANIAN VESSELS IN NEMAS 237 


and f. (It is theoretically possible, of course, that the same tube might have 
a flow in one direction at one time and in the opposite direction at another 
time, but, physiologically speaking, this is an unusual occurrence, and prac- 
tically an unheard of thing in a tubular organ “‘open” at both ends). We 
may therefore eliminate from the 20 possibilities, 12 of the combinations, 
leaving eight ,—acf, adf, bcf, ade, bce, bde, bdf and ace. 

But there are also two more combinations that obviously must be left out, 
as involving physical and physiological impossibility, namely ace and bdf, 
i.e., the cases where the three currents would simultaneously come to, or 
radiate from, the point X; bdf,—(no outlet, or reservoir), and ace,—(no 
obvious source of supply). This leaves six combinations possibly worthy of 
discussion, acf, adf, bcf, ade, bce and bde. These six possibilities are dia- 
grammed in figures 5 and 6. Five of these possibilities (Fig. 6) are rendered 


I. No exit pore for a; pore of uvette indicates 
reverse of c; f doubtful because entrance of 
sea water is possibly involved, while outflow 
of secretion is known from lateral pores, p. 


II. No exit pore for a; f doubtful as in I; monili- 
form glands are believed here to empty out- 
ward because of their form and location in O. 
fuscus; only outlet of d and f would be 
through a. 


III. c doubtful as in I; f very doubtful as in I 
and II; the only outlet for f and b would be 
through the uvette and c,—reverse of direc- 
tion indicated by structure. 


IV. No exit pore for a; the only source of a would 
be d and the uvette. 


V. c doubtful as in I; c may also be reasoned 
against on the basis of homologous structures 
1 O. mgrocephalatus and O. appendicu- 
atum. 





Fig. 6. Five diagrams of supposed currents in a demanian system. Objections to 
each supposition are listed opposite its diagram. Compare with Fig. 5. 


exceedingly improbable by the physiological and morphological considera- 
tions listed opposite their diagrams. We may therefore safely deduce, even 
from this single discussion, that the flow is almost certainly as shown in Fig.5. 

The significance of seven exit pores on each side in panicus (see Fig. 7) is 
an interesting subject for speculation. It can hardly be said that the exist- 
ence of seven pores is for the purpose of furnishing a large outlet; it would 
seem much simpler to attain such a result by having a larger single pore. Nor 


238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


does it seem that the multiple outlet would have anything to do with the 
quality of the secretion that is prepared. The most reasonable supposition 
is that, in use, the demanian secretion is rendered more effective through a 
multiple delivery, and it is not difficult to reason out why this might be so. 

Take, as a basis of reasoning, the fact that spiders have multiple spinneret 
tubes. This plurality is an advantage in that if some tubes of the spinneret 
apparatus do not act, or are restrained from acting, the remaining ones may 
continue to act, an economy of a kind often seen in nature. Thus threads 
of varying size and composition can be “spun.” It seems not unlikely 

that the multiple thread of the spider may have 
aut eral - a alt A structural advantages; at any rate it is a fact that, 
bai. the ATEN in some cases at least, the thread can be artificially 
@é€) split into components harmonizing in number 
SS (with the elements of the spinneret apparatus. 
s Ta If these be advantages, it is quite conceivable that 
drdim dla they may apply in some way to the multiporous 
Adoncholaimus. panicus, and this would harmonize 
-Z/PPP with the previous conclusions concerning the 
‘If function of the demanian system;—for presum- 
ably the secretion in panicus is like that of other 
oncholaims, i.e. a copious, sticky, non-water- 
soluble, elastic material;—at least these are its 
properties after it is delivered into sea water by 
pristiurus. 

The location of the outlets of the demanian 
Les. ]| system is always well caudad, and the oncholaims 
SS having the system are agile and limber, all of which 
X << ]y959 harmonizes with the belief that the system elabor- 
ates material used with some degree of “skill.” 
pe leigh ae eee All oncholaims having the demanian system 
tral and sectional views of have a habit of coiling and uncoiling and can with 
the posterior portion of the 1 
same female. eff prep, the the greatest ease place the exit pores of the system 
principal efferent at the against any part of the body except the tail and 
eee a pee ae its immediate vicinity, and this habit, no doubt, 
ents, eff dit; the seven-fold jg correlated with the function of the secretion. 
delta is shown at delta an i ; : 
the seven exit pores at exit. Females of such oncholaims have relatively short 

tails,—as if longer ones would perhaps be inthe way. 

Conceivably, of course, the demanian secretion might have properties 
attractive to the other sex (odor, etc.), but the idea does not seem to appeal 
so strongly as that of having something to do with other matters. 

In this connection it may be recalled that, opposite the demanian exit 
pores of Metoncholaimus albidus (Bastian), deMan described and figured a 


persistent girdle of left-over yellowish brown secretion. 









Oncholaims having the demanian system, pol. ON Mi 
at least most of them, have a way of collecting 
together in masses when artificially assembled on et | Be i sul, 
in sea water. Conceivably this habit may “HS 
have some connection with the demanian emplh Ve = 
secretion, but it is not obvious why only adult 
females should secrete for this purpose alone. 

The demanian system appears more dis- 
tended when the uterus is full or nearly full of 
eggs. For instance, at this time the uterine 
efferent and portions of the uterus of pristiurus 
may contain an abundance of colorless, trans- 
parent, rather structureless-looking matter, 
resembling, under the microscope, partially 
dissolved shavings of gelatin. 

The question arises as to what becomes of the 








.. sensilla 


00. . hel mary 





secretion of the accessory gland of the male, 
which is possibly or probably a homologue ef 
the demanian system in the female. No reply 
to this question has occurred in connection 
with these investigations except the possibility, 
which seems remote, that the “‘gum arabic- 
like’? mixture sometimes seen in the uterus of 
pristiurus might possibly have been derived 


Fig. 8. Profile of head end of male 
Oncholaimium appendiculatum. 
The three onchia are shown; the 
left ventral submedian is the 
longest,—see on dsl and on subm 
(2). The sensilla and amphidial 
nerve are shown. Nuclei shown 
mostly central nervous system; 
the scattered darker ones are 
nuclei of the lateral chord, the 
width of which is pointed out 
at chrd lat. 


ee or A part from the male. 


7 abt of 


_ appnell 


. NUS 






_.. Set subm 
_.. SL Sm 


x 350 


Fig. 9. Tail, male Oncholaimium 
appendiculatum. ppl, single ven- 
tral papilla; dct (3), caudal ducts 
leading to spinneret; appndl, 
ventral, erectile appendicule: an 
set, anal setae; set subm (12), sub- 
median setae on male only. 


_ Cop msc 


It should 

perhaps be mentioned that in the nemic 
genus Fhabditis, glands accessory to the 
male gonad are known that secrete a copu- 
latory cement; but no such cement is yet 
known in connection with any oncholaim. 

Of course, the mere presence of this 
material in the uterus and in the portion of 
the uterine efferent nearby does not of 
itself indicate the direction of the flow, but 
the structure of the organs distinctly sug- 
gests that the flow is caudad, i.e. from the 
uterus toward the external openings near 
the tail. Were the entire flow of the deman- 
ian system toward the uterus, it would 
seem strangely circuitous. 

While the fact that no external exit 
pores have been discovered in Oncholatmiwm 
appendiculatum makes conceivable a flow 
from its enteric vessel and the moniliform 
glands through the uvette to the uterus, yet 
the structure of the uvette pore seems as dis- 


240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


tinctly adapted to a flow in the opposite direction, i.e. caudad, in this species 
as in the others. Moreover a different explanation of this exceptional case 
seems more plausible, namely, that in O. appendiculatum the demanian 
organs are in a deteriorated condition. The fact that this species is the only 
one that almost invariably presents disease in the posterior extremity of 
the adult females may harmonize with the supposition that the demanian 
system of this species is in a deteriorating and perhaps useless condition. 
The nonconsecutiveness of the posterior cells of the moniliform glands in 
O. appendiculatum, and the appearance of crystals on the outer surface 
of the enteric efferent, (Fig. 3) suggest decadence in this anomalous species. 

In O. appendiculatum the uvette is reduced. to a mere ampulla; and is 
almost as greatly reduced in nigrocephalatum. In neither of these is it at 
all likely that the uvette itself could produce any very appreciable secretion 
flowing into the uterus, and yet in both species the uterine tube is better 
developed (or at any rate more obvious) than it is, for instance, in iat 
where the uvette is strongly developed. 

I have not seen sperms, or anything remotely resembling them, in the 
demanian system, as reported by Stewart and zur Strassen. 

Uritis. It is interesting that the females of a number of oncholaims 
shown to possess demanian vessels seem unusually subject to disease. 

Among such oncholaims, allusion is made to the following typical cases: 


Name Location Lesions Regeneration 
? Woods Hole, Mass.,| ‘‘tailless’’ Undoubtedly healed 
Ue tS, SAY over 
O. appendiculatum Woods Hole, Mass. | From tailend to half} No signs of regenera- 
| of nema necrotic tion 
M. pristiurus Woods Hole, Mass. | Tail end gone; no | Merely healed over; 
anal opening; no no openings 
spinneret 
A. fuscus 1. Cape Cod, Mass.| Former uritis (?) Terminus regener- 
2. Miss E. Horsman | Former uritis (?) ated; no spinneret 
Univ. College of 
Wales 
New Oncholaim Florida, U.S. A. Former uritis (?) Imperfect _spinneret 
and anal opening 
regenerated 


An interesting morphological problem is thus disclosed. As the table 
indicates, one not infrequently finds oncholaims, especially females, with 
highly peculiar caudal extremities,—sometimes without spinneret or anus, 
sometimes with these organs present but apparently abortive, or at least 
peculiar in form,—abnormalities probably due to specific disease. Ap- 
parently the disease is sometimes combated by the nemic organization, so that 
the posterior end of the nema heals over, and in some cases it seems as if a new 


JUNE 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 241 


anus is formed, and possibly even a new spinneret! Just how this occurs is 
not yet clear,*but I have seen both deformed anal openings and deformed 
spinnerets of female oncholaims that appeared to give evidence of having 
been imperfectly regenerated after some accident, or, more likely, after uritis. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
461sT MEETING 


The 461st meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cos- 
mos Club, February 26, 1930, President G. R. MANSFIELD presiding. 

The Secretary announced the election of Mrs. CHartes D. WauLcorT and 
Miss M. D. Fostsr, the latter of the U. 8. Geological Survey, to Active 
membership in the Society. 

Informal communications: i. F. BuRcHaRD showed lantern slides of a lens 
of intraformational conglomerate in the Cambrian Conesauga limestone in 
Alabama. This consists of flat plates of limestone, variously oriented in a 
matrix of more siliceous limestone. The plates of limestone are sharp edged 
and apparently have suffered no abrasion or transportation, but were ce- 
mented nearly in situ, soon after they were broken apart. He suggested that 
this deposit may have originated as talus filling of a small gully and showed a 
lantern slide of the present-day deposition of similarly shaped blocks of sandy 
clay at the base of an overhanging cliff in the Ackerman formation of Eocene 
age in Mississippi. 

- 'T. S$. Lovrerine described the three possible types of surfaces of no distor- 
tion and maximum strain obtained by compressing a sphere of reference into a 
strain ellipsoid. He pointed out that T. A. Linx in a recent discussion of the 
strain ellipsoid used a sphere of reference, the diameter of which shortened 
with the compression to equivalence with the intermediate axis of the strain 
ellipsoid. With this ‘‘Link” sphere of reference, the surfaces of no distortion 
can be at any angle to the applied force. LINK’s treatment seems without 
mechanical or geological significance. 

Regular Program: T.S. Loverine: The Tertiary history of the Front Range. 
Discussed by Messrs. GinLuLY, Mrrtin, Loverine, Rupny, WERNER and 
GOLDMAN. 

RoBeErtT Bak, Séructural survey of the Adirondack anorthosite. (illustrated). 
The pre-Cambrian rocks of the Adirondack Mountains, New York, consist of 
an oldest system of marbles and schists—the Grenville formation—and three 
igneous rocks—an anorthosite, a gabbro and a syenite series. The anortho- 
site forms a central massif which is surrounded by the syenite, and the gab- 
bros form hundreds of small round areas in the whole region. The Grenville 
formation appears as isolated fragments in the intrusive rocks. 

The geologists of the New York State Geological Survey have held that the 
three igneous rocks crystallized from three independent molten magmas and 
that the order of intrusion was (1) anorthosite, (2) syenite series, (3) gabbro.— 
In 1917, N. L. Bowen maintained that anorthosite and syenite are co-mag- 


* Regeneration seems to be uncommon in nemas. 
Additional articles consulted—see zur Strassen’s bibliographic list, 1896. 


242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


matic rocks, the anorthosite representing a residue of solid crystals which had 
precipitated in the parental magma, while the syenite was considered the 
mother liquor. The resulting controversy in the literature indicates a certain 
scarcity of structural data which the speaker has tried to supply through spe- 
cial studies in the field. The results of his studies are:. 

The anorthosite, the gabbro and the syenite series are all members of one 
and the same parental magma. Forty-seven examined gabbros grade into 
anorthosite or syenite, and no intrusive contacts have been seen. Gabbros 
have developed in the parental magma through clustering and accretion of 
solid ferromagnesian minerals, due to frictional forces between the individual 
crystal grains. ‘The process begins with small lumps, leads to lenses and 
layers, and ends with spherical bodies as large as two miles in diameter. The 
larger gabbros have settled with reference to the surrounding magma, the 
smaller ones have not. 

The anorthosite originated through accumulation of solid labradorite 
crystals in the magma chamber, as Bowen has maintained. The syenite is 
not, as a rule, intrusive into the anorthosite but grades into it; there is good 
evidence that it: is the mother liquor of the parental magma which has been 
squeezed out from a central crystal-filled chamber into the surrounding Gren- 
ville formation where the syenite forms a multitude of sill-like masses. 

The anorthosite is very likely a lens tilted to the northeast at 30°. Both 
indirect and direct observations point to this fact. 

It is believed that a parental magma of unknown composition, but possibly 
resembling that of a quartz diorite, advanced from ‘‘under the edge of the 
Canadian Shield” obliquely to the southwest into the Grenville formation. 
This magma must have carried considerable quantities of solid labradorite 
crystals in suspension, and the following processes are thought to have 
occurred at the same time: (1) clustering and gathering of dark silicates form- 
ing spherical gabbros; (2) compacting and clustering of solid labradorite 
crystals, coalescing finally into a large lenslike mass (the anorthosite massif), 
with portions of mother liquor enclosed here and there; (3) ejection of the 
syenitic mother liquor into the Grenville formation, possibly as far as 30 miles 
away from the anorthosite. 

The arrangement of the primary joint systems is in harmony with this 
general conception of the origin of the intrusive rocks. (Author’s abstract.) 


462ND MEETING 


The 462nd meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cos- 
mos Club, March 12, 1930, President G. R. MANSFIELD presiding. 

The Council announced with regret the deaths of CLAUDE E. SIEBENTHAL, 
former geologist of the U. 8. Geological Survey, and Capt. H. A. C. JENISON, 
formerly of the U. 8. Geological Survey, both Active Members of the Society. 

Informal Communications: Davip WuitTe exhibited samples of brine from 
a bore hole in San Mateo, California, which have been shown to contain living 
bacteria, (Micrococcus littoralis) in sufficient abundance to give a brownish- 
wine color to the brine. A possible similar organic source is suggested for the 
reddish color of some salt deposits. Discussed by M. I. GoLpMAN. 

Regular program: G. R. Putnam: Isostasy. Discussed by Messrs. LOVER- 
ING, Swick, WHITE, Ruspry, A. C. LANE, and SPENCER, with reply by Mr. 
PUTNAM. 


JUNE 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 243 


D. F. Hewett: Genesis of itron-manganese carbonate concretions in Central 
South Dakota.—Recent explorations on a zone of iron-manganese carbonate 
concretions in Central South Dakota not only indicate the existence of a large 
quantity of low-grade manganese-bearing material but throw light on the 
chemical processes involved in their genesis. Natural exposures indicate that 
the zone persists for at least 40 miles along the Missouri River, but explora- 
tions have been confined to about nine townships near Chamberlain, Brule 
County. ‘The zone is 38 feet thick and lies in the Pierre shale about 130 feet 
above the Niobrara limestone. Within this zone, the nodules range from 1 to 
8 inches in diameter and tend to occur in persistent layers. Most of the 
nodules have grown around organic remains, largely shells of Inoceramus, but, 
in part, fragments of plants and of bones belonging to marine as well as terres- 
trial vertebrates. Explorations include 12 shafts that range from 32 to 48 
feet deep and one open cut. In excavating these shafts, all of the nodules 
were separated from each 5-foot zone of shale, crushed, sampled, and ana- 
lyzed. From five shafts, average samples of shale were collected from succes- 
sive 10-foot zones and analyzed. On the average, each cubic yard of material 
excavated yielded 164 pounds of concretions containing 15.7 per cent man- 
ganese and 11.1 per cent iron. 

In reviewing this large amount of analytical data, it was found that (1) the 
combined percentages of iron and manganese tended to be constant at 28 to 
30 per cent and (2) as the weight of nodules recovered per cubic yard of shale 
increased, the percentage of iron in the sample of the nodules increased also. 
From this relation, it was inferred that the outer zones of the nodules con- 
tained more iron than the inner and this was confirmed by analyses of four 
carefully selected samples from a nodule. The ratio of the iron to the man- 
ganese content was about twice as much in the outer zone as in the inner zone. 
Further, for four of the shafts for which analyses of shale were also available, 
after calculating the amount of iron and manganese in the combined nodules 
and shale for successive zones, it was found that, although the amount of 
-manganese per unit section was about half that of iron, the percentage of the 
total amount of manganese now found in the nodules was about twice the 
per cent of the iron. 

In considering the genesis of concretions rich in iron and manganese car- 
bonate, it may be assumed that either (1) the concretions grew on the bottoms 
of bodies of water by accessions of iron and manganese from salts in solution 
or (2) the concretions formed in the sediments after burial by the local reduc- 
tion and migration of iron and manganese present as oxides in the sediments. 

From the thermal relations of the oxides and carbonates of iron and man- 
ganese established many years ago by Dieulafait, it appears that less heat is 
absorbed by the reduction of manganic to manganous oxides than of ferric 
to ferrous oxides and more heat is evolved by the formation of manganous 
carbonate than of ferrous carbonate. The relations described above, when 
viewed in the light of these thermal data, indicate that the concretions have 
grown after burial by accessions of carbonates formed by reduction of the 
higher oxides of iron and manganeses present in sediments. (Author’s 
abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. BuRCHARD, SPENCER, BRADLEY and HEweEttT. 


(To be continued) 


244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 12 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


THE Smithsonian Institution announces that a perfect sphere of flawless 
crystal, believed to be the largest in the world, is now the property of the 
United States National Museum, thanks to the generosity of Mrs. Worcester 
Reed Warner. Mrs. Warner made the gift as a memorial to her late husband, 
whose own outstanding achievements were largely in the manufacture of astro- 
nomical instruments from quartz. 

The crystal ball measures 12{ inches in diameter and weighs 1062 pounds. 
Perfect spheres of as much as 6 inches in diameter are great rarities, prized 
alike by emperors and museums, so that the uniqueness of the National 
Museums’s acquisition may be realized. 

The block of quartz from which the ball was cut is said to have come from 
Burma and must have weighed over 1,000 pounds. It was cut in China 
and polished in Japan. Eighteen months were required for this delicate and 
laborious task. According to Dr. George F. Kunz, the Japanese workmen 
first round the rough mass of crystal by careful chipping with a small steel 
hammer, forming a perfect sphere with the aid of thistoolalone. For grinding 
they use cylindrical pieces of cast iron, about a foot in length and full of 
perforations, in which the ball is kept constantly turning. The abrasive 
material used in this first grinding is powdered emery and garnet. The final 
polishing is effected with crocus or rouge (finely divided hematite), giving a 
splendid lustrous surface. 

The ball came to this country in 1925 and was immediately placed on 
temporary deposit in the National Museum. The officials of that institution 
express their pleasure that Mrs. Warner’s gift makes it the permanent property 
of the nation. The late Mr. Warner, to whom the gift is a memorial, was a 
member of the firm of Warner and Swasey, instrument makers. Mr. Warner 
designed and constructed three of the largest telescopes in use in this hemi- 
sphere, including the 36-inch instrument of the Lick Observatory, the 40-inch 
telescope of the Yerkes Observatory and the 72-inch telescope for the Domin- 
ion of Canada. 


Dr. Warp B. Wuirs, for the last eight years director of the bureau of 
chemistry, New York State Department of Agriculture and Markets, has © 
accepted an appointment as chief of food control, Food, Drug, and Insecticide 
Administration, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of R. W. Batcom. 


OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS 


THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND 
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if 
sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month, 


OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


President: Wi1LL1AM Bowie, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
Corresponding Secretary: L. B. TuckERMAN, Bureau of Standards. 
Recording Secretary: CHarLes THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. 
Treasurer; HENRY G. AvEers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 



















CONTENTS ae 
; - ORIGINAL Parars — i 


Physical cheusenne _The ‘compressibility ob rubber. ae H. 
enn SReREE NY Meme em me LIS, Krk 


Fe 


Zoology.—A new pocket mouse from southern Lower Californi aa 
and E. A. GOSDMAN. VE oaxr 8.2 Syipvin (tiem ea ewee aoe a 


Zoology.—The demanian vessels in nemas of the genus bosisitin 
on four new ; Oncholaims. ®: ie SLE ere nse eget: 


ipiagiors ar Cphoeaba rides 


THE GEOLOGICAL Society. eo ES “ apes Ree. tbo 
ay be: See ss .. ate, ge 
ScrenTIFIC Notes AND Dig ei Saree ee 


~ “> 
~ fF 9 ee 
Se " . 
e 
~ Von. 20 Juty 19, 1930 No. 13 
Bigoevn 
JU] oR at “s > 
\ h. ket) tae Ce. 
| \# 1ISH). 
SN nd 
AD fy. 
JOURNAL Sen, 
| ‘sak MyuSED™ 
OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


Epaar W. WoouarpD Epgar T, WHERRY C. Wrtue Cooke 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Vou. 20 JuLy 19, 1930 No. 13 


GENERAL SCIENCE.—The Philosophical Society of Washington 
through a thousand meetings... W. J. HumpHreys, U. 8. Weather 
Bureau. 


Tonight, the one thousandth on which we have foregathered to 
learn of new discoveries in the limitless field of science, we turn aside 
from discussions of the outer world to a few minutes of self-contempla- 
tion—to recall how, as a society, we came to be, and, lest we forget, 
to relate again a little of our own history since that natal day some 
o9 years ago. 

Before considering ourselves specifically, however, it will be interest- 
ing to review briefly our immediate antecedents. From records 
kindly examined by our fellow member, Mr. F. E. Brasch, Chief of the 
Smithsonian Division of the Library of Congress, and from other 
sources, especially Bulletin 101 of the United States National Museum 
by the late Richard Rathbun, a former president of this Society, it 
appears that the spirit of philosophical inquiry came to the Nation’s 
Capital almost with its founding. Washington himself had envisaged 
the establishment here of a great National University, and Joel Barlow 
writing to Jefferson, then vice president, from Paris on Sept. 15, 
1800, urged that Washington’s hope be realized in the establishment of 
an adequately endowed institution for both collecting and disseminat- 
ing knowledge, and that “the Institution be called the Philosophic 
Society.”’ Nothing came immediately of this suggestion. In Feb- 
ruary 1806 Jefferson and Barlow collaborated in drafting a bill for 
the establishment of a National Academy and University in Washing- 
ton, but again there were no tangible results. In this connection 
Jefferson, then President of the American Philosophical Society, said 
that he wished there might be a Philosophical Society or Academy at 
the seat of government with affiliated Academies in each state. 


' Address before the Philosophical Society of Washington, January 18, 1930. 


245 


246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 


Such keen interest in science and philosophy, shared also by Fulton, 
Law, Cutbush, Meigs, Adams and others, inevitably led to the forming 
of societies holding stated meetings and following announced pro- 
grams. ‘The earliest of these, the Columbian Agricultural Society, was 
very ephemeral—founded in 1810 and disbanded in 1812—and had 
many elements of the County Fair, holding exhibits and awarding 
premiums for things raised on the farm or made in the home. The 
next in order, and really the first learned society of Washington, the 
Metropolitan Society, was formed June 15, 1816, but on the adoption 
of its constitution, Aug. 8, 1816, changed its name to the Columbian 
Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences. Its activities were 
largely agricultural and horticultural together with the collection 
and display of museum specimens. In 1817 the Medical Society of 
the District of Columbia was formed, as was also (on March 13) the 
Washington Botanical Society. The latter, devoted mainly to the 
study of the plants of the District of Columbia, became inactive in 
three or four years and quietly vanished in 1826. The Columbian 
Institute, too, soon became moribund, despite the interest of a few 
faithful spirits, and in 1837 ceased entirely to exist as an active 
organization. Perhaps its most conspicuous product was the creation 
and maintenance for nearly 20 years of a botanic garden, at the very 
place where thirteen years later the present United States Botanic 
Garden was established. 

On May 15, 1840 the National Institution, later changed to National 
Institute, was organized in Washington in the expectation, 1t appears, 
of controlling and using the Smithsonian bequest, not narrowly and 
selfishly, but in a broad and liberal spirit, the spirit the Smithsonian 
Institution, though never controlled by this important and influential 
organization, was thus enabled more easily to adopt. The National 
Institute held meetings for about 20 years and published its proceed- 
ings in the form of Transactions and other papers. It was disbanded 
near the beginning of the Civil War, and from 1861 to 1871 the only 
meetings of scientific men in the city were those of the Saturday Club 
and the Potomac Side Naturalists’ Club. Such then, in merest out- 
line, were the careers of our worthy predecessors. 

At the end of this time the many learned men then living here, where 
life again had become normal, were anxious for the benefits to be 
derived from the regular meetings of a formal organization, and so it 
came to pass that the Philosophical Society of Washington, embracing 
all sciences save those, if they be sciences, of speculative thought, had 
its origin in the following initiatory letter, dated, it appears, March 
12 TSG 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 247 


Prof. Joseph Henry, LL.D. 

The undersigned respectfully request you to preside at a meeting which 
they propose to hold for the purpose of forming a society, having for its 
object the free exchange of views on scientific subjects, and the promotion of 
scientific inquiry among its members. 


M. C. Metres, F. V. HAaypsEn, 
BENJAMIN PEIRCE, J. EK. Hitcarp, 

TuHeEo. GILL, J. H. Lang, 

PETER PARKER, S. F. Batrp, 

F. B. M&ExK, WALTER L. NICHOLSON, 
GMS Les, Jere Teny, Wo. H. DaAtt, 

Wo. B. Taynor, B. FRANKLIN GREENE, 
Cuas. A. SCHOTT, S. V. BENET, 

1D, 183. ie wicoynay, HORACE CAPRON, 
THOMAS ANTISELL, THORNTON A. JENKINS, 
J. J. WOODWARD, Grorece H. Eiiot, 

J. 5S. BILLinecs, W. T. SHERMAN, 

J. K. BARNES, GEORGE C. SCHAEFFER, 
C. H. Crang, TuHos. LINCOLN CASEY, 
GEORGE A. OTIs, JNO. G. PARKE, 
ALBERT J. Myer, B. F. SANpDs, 

A. A. HUMPHREYS, A. B. Dykr, 

ASAPH HALL, J. B. WHEELER, 

SIMON NEWCOMB, Ave LACK OING 

Wo. HARKNESS, ELIsHA Foote, 

Bele Crane SALMON P. CHASE. 


Je Ele ©) Comnmin, 


The Signers of this letter represented, we see, every branch of both 
the natural and the exact sciences. 

The Society was incorporated in the City of Washington, District 
of Columbia, in 1901. The letter requesting incorporation was dated 
May 15, 1901, and signed as follows: 

Wm. H. Datu, Founder, oe 


THEO. GILL, Founder, 1c 
SIMON Newcoms, Founder, (L.8.) 


Cyrus ADLER, (L.8.) JAMES H. Gorg, (L.8.) 
Marcus BAKk&R, ars) JoHn G. HAGEN, @EzSs) 
Louis A. BAukR, (L.8.) JOHN F. Hay¥Forp, (L.8.) 
FrANK H. BicELtow,  (L.8.) Gero. W. LITTLEHALES, (L.S.) 
F. W. Cuarke, (Ess) CHARLES F. Marvin, _ (L.8.) 
Wn. A. Dr CarinpRy, (L.8.) H. M. Paut, (L.8.) 
RoBERT FLETCHER, (LiaS.)) J. W. PowE 1, (S*) 
G. K. GILBERT, Gress) RIcHARD RATHBUN, (L.8.) 
Guo. M. SternserG, (L.8.) J. E. WATKINS, (L.8.) 
Orto H. Tirrmann, _ (L..8.) CHARLES K. WEAD, (L.8.) 
F. W. True, (L.S.) Isaac WINSTON. (L.8.) 


‘S.) 
This letter was acknowledged before Henry E. Cooper, Notary 
Public, May 18, 1901, and filed May 20, 1901. 


CHas. D. WancoTtT, (1.8 


248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 


The presidents of the Society, representing various sciences, have 
been :— 


*JoSsEira HENRY. 40.6205". 1871—78  G. W. LittuEnALES......2 4. 1905 
: NE & 187880 *CLEVELAND ABBE........... 1906 
SIMON NEWCOMB .....-. , 1909 *Joun F. Hayrorp........... 1907 
TT. WOODWARD rise Skint oe 1881 Lb. A. BAgERe. 3 st2 eee 
FW. B. TAYLOR: =... :2.2..2.4 S82) 4=CQSKe WEAD. oe = eee 
AP Wes OWE lalact: =. ye = ee 1883: *R.S; WoopwARD :.;-2) a .. 19 
ES Cx WiHbRING v4... eee 1884 A. lL. Day:. 24:3 eee 
FASAPH TAL: 2..0...00.0. 2225 1885 FEOB: ROSAs2. 52.2 
yO a GS ee ei ee 1886 C. G. ABpor....). 3.4. 1913 
*Wm. HARKNESS.......3..... 1887 “*L. A Fiscuer... >. 1914 
*GARRICK MALLERY......:... 1888 W.S. HIcHELBERGER. 7S 1915 
*J. R. HASEMAN.-/5...0....22 1889 ~L.J. Bricéss2 See 1916 
=(0. he RON. oe tee 1890 E.. BUCKINGHAM... 4. 2a 1917 
7a) C, ManpENHADIG so. 22 1891 G, K. BURGESS... 3a 1918 
2G 1K, GIEBnR ee wae s beeen 1892 W..J. HUMPHREYS... 2 eee 1919 
7G bROWN: GOODE Eee a. hee 1893 R. B. SOSMAN. ....... eee 
FROBERTELETCHER: &.. 50h 1894 Ru. Paris: -< . 323 1921 
We EL DAtiIie. oo ae re eee K.-C. CRItteNnDEN |e 1922 
KW: Cua ich sr a ae 1896 W.P. Waite: ..... eee 1923 
7 NPA R CUS BAKER 5.4 ee, Se Oy D, Li: HaAzaARD: . > 1924 
7 A BiGRiow sss ee -. 1898 J. A, FamemMinc: 2) > ae 1925 
OF Ei. “Riarnwann eee eee 1899 W. Bowtl......:.¢). 32 
#(, M.uSTHRNBERG..:....-%:.: 1900. *J-P. Avur:.> .;.2)) =e 1927 
2D WALCOTT. 2a eee Oi Pau R. Hey. 2)... 
“RIGHARD HRATHRUN eo. 1. lL OO2 L.A OADAMS... .. cs... ae 1929 
J: H, GORB2 2.00.) 22.2 oo 1903" Water DD; LAMBERT) =e 
Crit INGA VEN, eee ees. 1904 


* Deceased. 


Returning now to the earliest meetings, we have, quoting from 
Volume I of the Society’s Bulletin: 
1st Meeting. March 18, 1871. 

Prof. Joseph Henry in the Chair. 

In response to this call [the letter quoted above of March 12, 1871, to 
Joseph Henry] a meeting of the subscribers thereto was convened and held at 
the Smithsonian Institution, in the Regent’s room, on Monday, March 13, 
1871. The outline of a Constitution was adopted, and under it the following 
gentlemen, who collectively should constitute a GENERAL COMMITTEE 
for the transaction of the business of the Society, were elected officers :— 


PRESIDENT. 
Joseph Henry. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS: 


M. C. Meigs, Horace Capron, 
J. E. Hilgard. Wm. B. Taylor. 


TREASURER. 
Peter Parker. 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 249 


SECRETARIES. 
Boke -Crais, Theodore Gill. 
MEMBERS AT LARGE OF THE GHNERAL COMMITTEE. 
Thomas Antisell, EK. B. Elliott, 
Jie @. Corin: W. T. Sherman, 
S. Newcomb, T. L. Casey, 
S. F. Baird, T. A. Jenkins, 


J. J. Woodward. 


The Constitution was then referred to the General Committee for verbal 
expression; and the Committee was also empowered to propose Rules and 
By-Laws for the Government of the Society. 


2nd Meeting. March 18, 1871. 
The President in the Chair. 
Professor 8. F. Baird communicated to the Society, on behalf of the author, 
a copy of a memoir entitled— 


OFFICIAL REPORT OF THE YELLOWSTONE EXPEDITION OF 
1870, IBS IWUHW I, Gi, CC. IDOAWNII, AID WW, So (Ga nvaosas Ny 


Thus, organized in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, 
on March 13, 1871, the Philosophical Society promptly began, March 
18, 1871, its scientific career, which it has pursued ever since with 
much of that quiet dignity and singleness of purpose that characterized 
its founders. 

In his anniversary address, November 18, 1871, Professor Henry 
spoke on the character and object of this society. Several passages 
are here quoted from this address. They give us first hand informa- 
tion on our subject, and at the same time reveal to us something of 
the personality of this great character, the most scholarly of gentlemen 
and the most gentlemanly of scholars. ‘“‘Man,” he says, “is a sympa- 
thetic being, and no incentive to mental exertion 1s more powerful than 
that which springs from a desire for the approbation of his fellow men; 
besides this, frequent interchange of ideas and appreciative encourage- 
ment are almost essential to the successful prosecution of labors requir- 
ing profound thought and continued mental exertion. Hence, it is 
important that those engaged in similar pursuits should have oppor- 
tunities for frequent meetings at stated periods.’’—‘‘Furthermore, a 
society of this kind becomes a means of instruction to all its members, 
the knowledge of each becoming, as it were, the knowledge of the 
whole.”’ 

He then discusses the desirability of publishing a Bulletin. This 
was done with the aid of the Smithsonian Institution, to and including 
the 378th meeting, Dec. 19, 1891, of the Society as a whole, and the 64th 


250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 


meeting, April 1, 1891, of the mathematical Section. The resulting 
eleven volumes contain, in addition to lists of members, officers, by- 
laws, et cetera, the programs of all meetings, abstracts of many papers, 
and a few articles in full. Four additional volumes of the Bulletin 
were published by the Society, bringing its records down to and inelud- 
ing the year 1910. On April 22, 1911, it was agreed to defer the 
further publication of the Bulletin and instead thereof to publish to 
the extent of 70 pages per year, if so much be needed, in the JoURNAL 
OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and to subscribe to this 
Journal for all members of the Society who may not at the time also 
be members of the Academy. ‘This arrangement appears to have 
been reasonably satisfactory and still is in force. 

Professor Henry also comments in his first address to the Society on 
the relatively large number of scientific workers in Washington, and on 
the extent of instrumental and library facilities then available. 

“With so many facilities,’ he says, ‘‘as exist in the city of Washing- 
ton for the pursuit of science, this Society would be derelict of duty 
did it fail to materially aid, through communion of thought and 
concert of action, the advancement of the great cause of human im- 
provement.” 

In this recognition of the fact that opportunity implies duty Henry 
was right. Many centuries ago the same idea was most forcefully 
expressed in the parable of the trees and their fruit, and it is eternally 
true. Since that time, more than 58 years ago, when Joseph Henry, 
the first president of our Society, spoke so wisely, the scientific facilities 
and opportunities in Washington have vastly increased, and with 
them have equally grown our imperative duty to produce abundant 
and good results. Our tree, the Philosophical Society, still bears 
plenteous fruit of the finest quality and in addition to that, it has 
furnished many scions that have grown into independent trees, until 
where once there was but a single tree now there are twenty, or more, 
each sturdy and an annual bearer of copious crops. Indeed the 
Society early in its career made the way easy for such a spread and 
independent development by adopting the following as a standing 
rule—a rule it long retained: 


Sections representing special branches of science may be formed by the 
General Committee upon the written recommendation of twenty members of 
the Society. 


Under this authority J. E. Hilgard and nineteen other members of 
the Society requested on Jan. 27, 1883, that a Section in Mathematical 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 251 


Science be formed, and such a section was organized on March 29, 
1883, and for nearly ten years held independent and successful meet- 
ings. After a time, however, when the Society had become more and 
more mathematical through the loss of the anthropologists, 1879; 
the biologists, 1880; the chemists, 1884; the entomologists, 1884; 
and the geographers, 1888—when there was left only mathematics and 
its more or less immediate dependents, physics, astronomy, geodesy 
and geology—the mathematical Section ceased to exist as such, its 
last meeting being the 68th, Nov. 30, 1892. In truth the Society 
and this Section had become so nearly one and the same that inde- 
pendent meetings on their part were no longer desirable. However, 
that was by no means the end of the establishment of new scientific 
societies in Washington. 

Still another scion sprang from this original tree, a scion that grew 
mightily and that had something of the properties of all the others as 
well as characteristics distinctly its own. It early (1878) came into 
being in this fashion. After the formal presentation of scientific 
papers had been completed, whether in some office or elsewhere, it 
often happened that many of those present fell into pleasant and 
profitable discourse on various topics, a discourse that out of regard to 
a janitor’s endurance, or for some other reason, had to be broken off 
abruptly, or continued on the street or, and often, in some favorite 
rathskeller. This was the origin of that other scion, sprung from 
the desire for free and friendly discourse between scholars, and known 
the world over as the Cosmos Ciub. 

And the times have changed. In the earlier days of the Society the 
universe was its province and every science a congenial topic. The 
knowledge and the interest of the Henrys and the Newcombs was 
broad and comprehensive; ours is attenuated. The entomologist’s 
father, for instance, knew bugs, he himself knows a bug, while his son 
may perhaps, know only a particular flea that lives on that bug! 
Nor is the physicist any exception to this involution or devolution 
process. Once he knew something of the phenomena about him, and 
was happy in that knowledge. Today, well, all too frequently he gets 
into a metaphysical muddle over the eighteen hundredth portion of a 
hydrogen atom. Of course the electron is a mighty important thing 
and is fully worthy of all the attention it is receiving, but one does 
wish that there were enough good physicists to give many other things 
the attention they also deserve. Often we look at our program, I fear, 
and say: “‘Humph, nothing here about the eighteen hundredth portion 
of the hydrogen atom. One paper is on the proton, in which I am not 


252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 


interested; and the other on the photon, and that bores me. I shall 
stay at home.” Well, the proper time to come is every time, and 
the most urgent time to come is when the subject under discussion is 
the one you know least about. 

And the times have changed in another way too. Only a quarter of 
a century ago, a mere yesterday it seems, the meetings of the Society 
had the air of formal dignity. The presiding officer always, or nearly 
always, honored the occasion by appearing in evening dress, and so too 
on many, if not most, occasions did the speakers; though of course it 
always was what a man said, and not what he wore when he said it, 
that really counted. Nor was this the only formality we of the older 
generation recall regretfully, or amusedly, as our mood may deter- — 
mine. Who, we wonder, when a Woodward was presiding or a New- 
comb speaking, would have had the temerity to burn, even for a 
moment, incense on the altar of the goddess Nicotine; or in any other 
way mar, or ease, again as our mood may suggest, the formal dignity 
of the occasion? Why, Sirs, we as lief would have gone to a wedding 
in our shirt sleeves, or puffed a pipe in church! 

The activity of the Society is well shown by the fact that to cata- 
logue only the first 310 of its regular meetings, and the first 35 meetings 
of the Mathematical Section, required 61 double-column octavo 
pages in fine print. Nor has the Society been any less active latterly 
than formerly, though more restricted in its scope. Here, A. B. 
Johnson, J. C. Welling, and others, told of the anomalies of sound 
signals, in which Joseph Henry, John Tyndall, and Lord Rayleigh 
were so greatly interested. Here, Alexander Graham Bell told of his 
interesting experiments on the photophone. Here, that fascinating 
shibboleth, isostasy, was first given to the world, April 27, 1889, in an 
interesting paper on the problems of Physical Geography by C. E. 
Dutton. Here, isostasy had much of its development under John F. 
Hayford, and still flourishes under the constant care of William Bowie. 
Here, in 1896, a decade before there ever was an aeroplane in the sky, 
Albert F. Zahm presented a paper on skin friction that is a classic in 
the science of aviation. Here, C. G. Abbott has kept us informed of all 
the work of himself and others on solar radiation. Here, E. B. Rosa 
brought to our knowledge the measurements of extreme accuracy which 
he, N. E. Dorsey, and their colleagues, were making of fundamental 
electrical units. 

Here, too, many another outstanding paper was presented, for these 
are only excellent examples to illustrate the sustained activity of the 
Society through a thousand meetings, and the earnest of what the 
next thousand, and the next and next, will be. 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY DEP 


IMPORTANT DATES IN THE SOCIETY’S HISTORY 
1871, March 18, Society founded. 


1874, June 6, adoption of the rule that in the official records of the Society no 
title except ‘‘Mr.”’ shall be used. 


1883, January 27, Mathematical Section formed. 


1887, March 26, 300th meeting of the Society, and its first in the Assembly 
Hall of the Cosmos Club, H. Street and Madison Place, where it has 
met ever since, except occasionally, and then usually in conjunction with 
some other society and for special reasons. For a number of years 
previous to this date the meetings had been in the library of the Surgeon 
General’s Office, old Ford’s Theater, east side of 10th Street, between 
E and F, N.W. 


1893, February 18, 400th meeting of the Society, held at the Corcoran, corner 
Fourteenth and K streets Northwest, and consisting of a banquet, with 
toasts and reminiscences; reported in Volume 12 of the Bulletin. Eight 
founders and 81 other members and guests were present. 


1899, April 15, celebration of the 500th meeting by a dinner at Rauscher’s, 
Connecticut Ave. and L. Street, with 39 persons present. 


1901, May 20, Society incorporated in the city of Washington, District of 
Columbia. 


1911, April 22, decision adopted to defer the further publication of the Bulle- 
_ tin, and to publish in, and subscribe to, the Journal of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences. 


1925, December 12, 55th annual meeting, at which the last surviving founder, 
WiuuiaM H. Dat, spoke on “‘Some Recollections of the Founding of the 
Philosophical Society,’ and James H. Gorn and Witiiam H. Hotmes 
gave accounts of the early days of the Society. Unfortunately none of 
these addresses was preserved. 


1930, January 18, 1000th meeting, as per copy of program below, at which 
the foregoing historical sketch was read, supplemented by 31 lantern 
portraits of deceased prominent members of the Society, and followed 
by interesting reminiscences by Messrs J. H. Gorr and C. F. Marvin. 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON 


The 1000th Meeting will be held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium at 8.15 P.M., 
Saturday, January 18, 1930. 
Program : 
W. J. Humphreys—The Philosophical Society of Washington through a 
Thousand Meetings. (Illustrated). 
J. H. Gore and C. F. Marvin—Reminiscences of the Early Days of the 
Philosophical Society of Washington. 
Recently elected to membership: James H. Taylor, George Washington Uni- 
versity; Bruce L. Wilson, Bureau of Standards; Robert F. Mehl and H. B. Maris, 
Naval Research Laboratory. 


L. V. JUDSON and O. S. ADAMS, Secretaries. 
Committee on Communications: Walter D. Sutcliffe (Coast and Geodetic Survey) ; 


W. G. Brombacher (Bureau of Standards); George R. Wait (Department of Ter- 
restrial Magnetism). 


PORTRAITS 
Eight deceased eminent members, typical of the many intellectual giants who 
have adorned the society. 
The several presidents, in their order of rncumbency. 


biog 


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JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 207 


YOR 





SSS 


SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD 
1823-1887 


258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL? 20, No. 13 





ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
1847-1922 


209 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


HUMPHREYS 


JULY 19, 1930 


ee: 





ILLIAM FERREL 


W 


1817-1891 


260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL 
1837-1914 


261 


SOCIETY 


: PHILOSOPHICAL 


HUMPHREYS 


fumyY 1951930 





RD 


A 


JULIUS ERAsSMUS HILG 


1825-1891 


262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





JONATHAN HoMER LANE 
1819-1880 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 263 





SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY 
1834-1906 


voL. 20, No..13 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


264 





BENJAMIN PEIRCE 


1809-1880 


265 


SOCIETY 


PHILOSOPHICAL 


. 
e 


HUMPHREYS 


JULY 19, 1930 


PEE LEE EL 


ip 





HENRY 


JOSEPH 


1871-1878 


266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





Srimon NEWCOMB 


1878-1880 
1909 


267 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


HUMPHREYS 


JULY 19, 1930 





J. J. Woopwarp 


1881 


268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





W. B. TaYLor 
1882 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 269 





J. W. PowELu 
1883 


270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





J. C. WELLING 
: 1884 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 2701 





ASAPH HALL 
1885 


272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





J. S. BILnInes 
1886 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 273 











M. HARKNESS 
1887 


GARRICK MALLERY 








JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 13 


274 


1888 


275 


COO . ssi 
OG INKS : ‘ WANN 


ARO 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


HUMPHREYS 


JULY 19, 1930 


oo 


it eR ei Oittes elon 


x 





EASTMAN 
1889 


. 


R 


J 


276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





C. E. Dutton 
1890 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Dh 





T. C. MENDENHALL 
1891 


2 


~“I 


8 


JOURNAL 


OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


G. K. GILBERT 
1892 


vou. 20, No. 13 





JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 279 





G. Brown GooDE 
1893 


VoL. 20, No. 13 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


TON 


‘r 
X 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHING 


280 





RoBERT FLETCHER 


1894 


281 


SOCIETY 


PHILOSOPHICAL 


HUMPHREYS 


JULY 19, 1930 








1895 


282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





F. W. CLARKE 
1896 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 283 





. 


Marcus BAKER 
1897 


284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





F. H. BIGELOW 
1898 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 285 


yy 
Uj 


Le 
Yj tify Ly 


jj 
Zi 


Yj 
yyy 





O. H. TirtMann 
1899 


286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





G. M. STERNBERG 
1960 


JULY 19, 1930 





HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL 


C. D. Watcotrt 
1901 


SOCIETY 


87 


288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





RicHaRD RATHBUN 
1902 


289 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


HUMPHREYS 


JuLY 19, 1930 





. GORE 
1903 


H 


J 


290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 13 





C. F. Marvin 
1904 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 291 





G. W. LitTLEHALES 
1905 


292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 13 





= 


CLEVELAND ABBE 
1906 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 293 





JOHN F. HAyForD 
1907 


294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





L. A. BAUER 
1908 


295 


SOCIETY 


PHILOSOPHICAL 


. 
° 


HUMPHREYS 


gjuLY 19, 1930 


WG 


<< 


\ 
\ 


—— 





. WEAD 
1909 


. 


C 


296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





R. S. WoopwarbD 
1910 


JuLY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: FHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 297 





A. L. Day 
1911 


298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 13 





EE. B: Rosa 
1912 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 299 





300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





L. A. FIscHER 
1914 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 301 





W.S. EIcHELBERGER 
1915 


302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





i... J. Brieces 
1916 


303 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


HUMPHREYS 


JULY 19, 1930 





EK. BucKINGHAM 


1917 


304. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 2C, No. 13 





G. K. BurGEss 
1918 


305 


SOCIETY 


PHILOSOPHICAL 


HUMPHREYS 


JULY 19, 1930 





W. J. HUMPHREYS 


1919 


306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 13 





R. B. SosMAN 
1929 


JULY 19, 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 307 





R. L. Faris 
LED 


308 


JOURNAL 


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E. C. CRITTENDEN 
1922 


JULY 19; 1930 HUMPHREYS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 309 





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1923 


310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





DY La BazaRp 
1924 


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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


HUMPHREYS 


JULY 19, 1930 


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J. A. FLEMING 


1925 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Wn. Bowl1e 
1926 


VOL. 20, No. 13 





> PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY B13 





uy 19, 1980 HUMPHREY 


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J: P.. AULT 
1927 


314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





P. Reber 
1928 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


HUMPHREYS 


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ADAMS 
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316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 13 





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1930 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 AUGUST 19, 1930 No. 14 


EVOLUTION.—The mechanism of organic evolution.! CHARLES B. 
DAVENPORT, Department of Genetics, Carnegie Institution of 
Washington. (Communicated by W. J. HUMPHREYs). 


As we look over the world today we see, as the ancients did, the 
marvellous phenomenon of a world populated not only by humans but 
also by many hundred thousand so-called species of animals and plants 
existing in uncountable individuals whose number can no more be 
expressed by the ordinary system of numbering than astronomical 
distances can be readily expressed in miles. A cubic millimeter of the 
blood of a leucaemic mouse may contain over a million white cor- 
puscles; and there may well be 1,000 such cubic millimeters of blood in 
amouse. ‘This gives us a billion white corpuscles in one mouse, not to 
consider the other cells of the mouse’s body. ‘These white corpuscles 
are essentially organisms, with powers of food-gathering, assimilation, 
excretion, locomotion, sensation, ete. And this is but one mouse. 
Even if we assume so few as 23 house mice to a human being on the 
earth (and mice are ubiquitous) we shall have 5 billion billion white 
blood corpuscles in house mice alone. But probably the pathologist 
might have as many bacteria in one of his test-tubes. 

I have sometimes speculated on the number of organisms visible to 
the low power of the microscope that are in our Inner Harbor at the 
end of August, when it has a creamy, soup-like consistency. Assuming 
1 per cubic millimeter, which is certainly far too small, there would be a 
quadrillion individuals in this space which would occupy only a 
square millimeter in the one-millionth map of the world, which has 
over half a billion square millimeters. 


1 Presented before the 233rd meeting of the Academy, as one of the series of papers on 
Origin and Evolution. Received for publication April 28, 1930. 


317 


318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


Pardon me for wearying you with figures. IJ have wanted to put you 
in a position to grant my first point that the number of individual 
organisms on the globe is essentially infinite, though the number of 
kinds that naturalists have been able to count and describe in the past 
150 years is still finite. 

Next, I would call to your attention that most of these individuals 
have ashort life and are quickly replaced by others, even if we leave out 
of account the unicellular organisms which retain their individuality 
only for the few hours or minutes necessary to reorganize and divide 
again. Even if we assume that the average length of life of an individ- 
ual is a year—and it is probably not over a day—then we have to 
consider the remarkable phenomenon of an annual wiping off of the 
slate, as it were, of this infinitude of individuals each year and their 
re-formation the next year. ‘This is possible owing to the immense 
reproductive capacity of certain species. Thus one oyster may lay 
50,000,000 eggs during a few days in the summer and one sea urchin 
20,000,000 eggs. These are samples, merely, of reproductive capacity 
of individuals. Perhaps now we have gained some conception of the 
number of individuals that have been produced each year on the earth, 
during we do not know how many millions of years. 

If now you are willing to admit that the problem of organic evolution 
is that of the evolution of an organic mass consisting of an infinitude of 
individuals reproduced during an infinitude of generations, that may 
serve as a starting point to our inquiry as to the mechanism of organic 
evolution. Thank you! 

Now, each individual has a certain recognizable form and acquires 
it through a certain course of development, be it more or less complex. 
The center of control of this form is largely, if not chiefly, in the chromo- 
somes of the organic cells,—in its genes, to be more precise. In fact 
the soma of organisms, what we see, is just an index of the form-pro- 
ducing and maintaining factors of the genes—always, of course, 
recognizing that the end result is a sort of reaction between gene and 
environment. Now if the world of organisms is composed of an infini- 
tude of kinds it is because the germ plasm is of an infinitude of kinds. 
The course of organic evolution has been, and is, what it is because the 
germ plasm has undergone and is undergong the changes that it has 
undergone and is undergoing. ‘This change of the germ plasm is called 
mutation. Mutation is one of the great factors in organic evolution. 

Now what do we know about mutation? First, we know that it is 
wide-spread. ‘This knowledge has first become precise, as organisms 
have been studied in successive generations, under controlled conditions. 


AuGausT 19, 1930 DAVENPORT: MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION ol9 


Such mutations have long been known among domesticated organisms 
like potatoes, poultry, guinea pigs and dogs. Mutations have been 
so long known among domesticated organisms that it was natural for 
Darwin to discuss ‘‘Variation under Domestication” and for him and 
others to consider what quality of domestication it is that induces 
mutation. During the past 25 years in several species of animals taken 
from the wild, many generations have been followed. And in conse- 
quence we now know that mutation has not necessary relations to 
domestication; but only that domestication enables us to see and 
perhaps preserve such mutations. Rather, I should say, the product 
of such mutation, for the mutation has occurred in the germ plasm 
before it has become visible in the soma of the organism that develops 
under the control of the mutated germ plasm. 

Let us now consider some of the facts of mutation that experimental 
study has revealed. 

First, mutation is probably universally occurring in all germ plasms. 
Thus, in various mammals that have been reared so that they can be 
observed, mutation has occurred in all visible parts, in internal organs, 
and in resistance to disease. In man, whichyis the mammal that has 
been most thoroughly studied, we have mutations in hairiness, pigmen- 
tation, skin growths, appendages and digits, teeth, sense organs, form 
of internal organs, like the iliocecal valve, size and functioning of the 
endocrines, structure and functioning of the nervous system, of the 
blood and of the reproductive system. Finally, we have mutations in 
disease-resistance, due to obscurer morphological or bio-chemical idio- 
syncrasies. 

Among pigeons, mutations in color, form of beak, nervous behavior 
have arisen in the Whitman-Riddle series. In poultry, I have in the 
course of 10 years got apparently new mutations in toes, wings and 
nervous reactions. And any poultry fancier knows of the mutations 
that have occurred in the past 75 years in color and pattern, in comb, 
in cerebral hernia and crest, in feet, wings and beak, and in egg-laying 
capacity. 

In the insects which have been bred for rapidity of generations 
mutation has been repeatedly found. In Drosophila, Muller computes 
that among 500 factors in the X-chromosome of Drosophila each, 
in the average, mutates at the rate of | mutation in 4 years. This 
would seem to mean that, if you followed a single chromosome and 
when it divided considered one of the daughter chromosomes and so 
proceeded through the generations, then at the end of 4 years the 


320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


expectation is that in this line of chromosomes some one gene will have 
mutated and at the end of 4 more years that gene, or some other in the 
chromosome line we are following, will have mutated again. But 
there is an infinitude of chromosomes in the totality of all Dro- 
sophila melanogasters. The number in a single gonad is vast; 
the number of gonads in the world of Drosophilas that swarm in the 
autumn over every mass of decaying fruit in a million of orchards as 
elsewhere is practically infinite. One sees that just Drosophila melano- 
gaster is producing an infinitude of mutations each season, and it has 
been producing this infinitude annually for a long time; but timedoes 
not count for much, for infinity times a finite number remains infinity. 
Drosophila throws upon the world each year, a vast number of kinds of 
mutations in inconceivably great numbers. 

And Drosophila is not exceptional. Let us take a small water crust- 
acean, one of the Daphnids. Banta has reared lines of these in captivity 
and examined the progeny daily. In one line of Moina macrocopa, 
carried parthenogenetically, a dominant mutation has occurred, on the 
average, at least once in 50 generations, but many more recessive muta- 
tions have occurred and been phaenotypically unexpressed. Now the 
number of Daphnids, which crowd any suitable pond in both hemi- 
spheres during each spring and autumn, is beyond conception. Fora 
single circular pond a hundred feet in diameter may well contain,during 
the season many million Daphnids, if 1 is allowed to the cubic centi- 
meter. The total of mutations that occur in one year in Moina 
macrocopa must be inconceivably great. 

Certain of the lower forms are mutating even more strikingly. At 
least such would seem to be the case if the remarkable variations shown 
by Leonian in the fungus, Fusarvwm, may be regarded (as seems most 
probable) as mutations. Here scores of strains arise, in but a few 
years, even in a uniform culture medium, and perpetuate themselves. 
The strains vary in their rate of growth, pigment formation, type of 
fruiting, kind of spores, and reactions toward temperature, acids, dyes, 
and toxic substances. Apparently such mutation is going on all the 
time in nature. 

As we consider these best known cases of mutation and realize that 
all of the countless chromosomes and genes are undergoing occasional 
change we are appalled by the universality of mutation and are caused 
to wonder how any species remains constant in nature to the extent 
that it is possible for a second naturalist, 50 years later, to identify in 
nature the species already described; we are less surprised that the 


august 19, 1980 DAVENPORT: MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION O21 


reviser of a genus a generation or two later will find twice as many 
species as his predecessor. We gain a lot of sympathy for the much 
abused species-splitter who, observing nature without the restriction of 
tradition, finds vastly more species than had been previously described 
by his predecessors. [Slides of variations in feral species (species- 
groups) were shown. ‘These are probably cases of mutations that have 
established or may establish biotypes or incipient species. | 

Organisms seem to be producing mutations at an inconceivably 
rapid rate, in infinite quantity. The wonder is that there are such 
things as species. One is led to inquire if, in describing species, taxono- 
mists are not merely inventing transient, evanescent categories. 

Such a conclusion is unjustified. Every taxonomist will tell you 
that the things he describes and others have described before him are 
real entities. If I am studying thrips and wish to secure a species 
described 50 years ago as living in a certain composite plant in eastern 
Russia, then if I go to the designated locality and look in the designated 
species of flower I will find the species with all the characters described 
50 or 100 thrips generations ago. How is such an experience in con- 
stancy to be harmonized with universal mutation? This is perhaps 
the heart of the problem of evolution. 

In considering the fixity of some species it must first of all be recog- 
nized that a species is a complex of morphological and physiological 
characters that can not exist alone but is absolutely dependent upon 
the external world for its existence. ‘The organism must live in a me- 
dium of such and such physical qualities, at such a temperature, in the 
midst of such radiant energy, with access to such and such food stuffs 
which it is capable of taking in and utilizing for its metabolism. 
Every organism is extraordinarily closely fitted to its environment. 
And that environment may be very complex. 

I will illustrate this principle by reference to the almost microscopic 
Collembola that live on the beach at Cold Spring Harbor (Fig. 1). 
They live in an area of apparently washed sand and pebbles in a region 
that is covered twice a day several feet deep by sea water and then 
exposed to the air, in a region swept by strong winds, overlaid by ice 
in winter, and exposed to the hot sun’s rays in summer (Fig. 2). <A 
region where the sandy substratum is caused to shift by the action of 
waves, and its pebbles to roll. The region looks unpropitious for any 
organism, yet of one species of Collembola in an area a kilometer long 
and 5 to 8 meters broad there are probably in the middle of summer a 
hundred million individuals. And they are meeting successfully the 


322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


40 33 


AV 52 


uy Seund.ays @te sapterrcd cw jest ead scbew th 
Apes af mien Low valle 





30° 29 


73°28" 


Fig. 1—Map of Cold Spring Harbor, showing spit (Cold Spring Beach) 





Fig. 2.—Photograph of north side of sand spit, near the western end, at low tide. 
In the central foreground is the high tide line, marked by a mass of débris. On 
the left is the gravelly lower beach; the middle beach and storm bluff are at the right. 


AuGusT 19, 1930 DAVENPORT: MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION 320 


difficult and complex conditions imposed by that particular habitat. 
If the habitat be compared to a most intricate lock, the organism is a 
most intricate key that fits that lock completely. How has this key 
come to fit this lock? 

First of all, it is to be said that the Collembola in question is the only 
larger organism that is found in any huge numbers on and in the 
great portion of the beach. Worms there are that live in the sand of 
the beach; crustacea and insects there are that feed on the débris that 





Drawn vy ©-D-D. 


Fig. 3.—Drawings of 3 species of Collembola on the beach, (1), (2), and (8), with 
some details of their structure. (11) shows the relative frequency of Jsotoma on the 
beach; the abscissae represent distances from the beach line on top of the beach; the 
ordinates, the proportional frequency of occurrence. 


is thrown up by the sea at the high tide line; but it is only the Collem- 
bola that swarms over the beach (fig. 3). 

Why are the Collembola the only organisms that make such use of 
the beach? The answer seems to be that they are the only group that 
holds a key approximating the needs of the beach lock. Two other 
species of Collembola live on the edge of the beach, in relatively small 
numbers. But one, Jsotoma berselsit, has the combination of small 
size, slender form and greater capacity for jumping that are demanded 
for successful life on the beach. Another species which has a chunkier 


324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


form and is less successful as a jumper is found on the beach but is much 
less numerous than the first. Now the Podurid Collembola have, in 
general, a structure and reactions that lead them to live in situations 
not so very different from those occupied by Jsotoma. They are found 
on water or in humid earth or in moist caves, or in crevices of moist 
walls. If anything is to survive in the sand of the sea beach it must 
come out of a group with instincts and structure that make it possible 
and preferable to live in such places. However, the interstices of the 
sand of the beach are especially fine and the period of exposure to the 
air is so brief that the insect must have movements and responsiveness 
of such sort as will ensure adequate exercise and oxygenation of the 
tissues during the brief time that it is exposed to the air. Collem- 
bola, in general, have the right form of key; Isotoma berselsi has 
precisely the appropriate notches to fit the precise lock of the beach. 

I have dwelt at length on the Collembola of the beach because they 
may serve to illustrate the principle that mutations become the char- 
acters of species and play a part in evolution provided they meet some 
demand of the environment; or, the other way round, a new mutation 
persists as a species character if it can find an environment to which it 
is Suited. 

This general principle is of wide application. In Banta’s daphnids 
there appeared a female whose young died on a cool day in the autumn. 
It was found that subsequent broods could be kept alive in an incuba- 
tor at a higher temperature than that of the room. In short, an inves- 
tigation of the temperature relations of these cold-sensitive young and 
their equally cold-sensitive descendants showed that there had arisen 
by mutation a thermal clone—a parthenogenetically reproducing strain 
—whose optimum temperature was about 10°C. higher than that of the 
ordinary daphnids. This mutation was fatal at the ordinary room 
temperature; it had important survival value for the environment of an 
incubator; it would have had an important evolutionary value had 
there been a warm spring near by into which the strain could have been 
transplanted. This experience, indeed, shows the probable method by 
which aquatic animals have come to inhabit hot springs. It is not by 
gradual change wrought on the germ plasm by the direct action of the 
high temperature of the water, but rather the fine opportunity for sur- 
vival afforded by the high temperature to any chance thermal mutant. 

Again, as has long been known, many of the animals that live in 
caves are blind and much speculation has been offered to account for 
this blindness. The old idea was that, through disuse and the parsi- 


AuGcusT 19, 1930 DAVENPORT: MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION 329 


mony of nature that would prevent it from continuing to form useless 
organs, the useless organs were no longer formed. On the other hand, 
Eigenmann, through his extensive knowledge of fishes, was able to 
point out that the blind fish of caves belonged to just one family of 
fishes, a family that had mutated in the direction of blindness in various 
parts of the continent. Now, some of these mutations in the direction 
of blindness have survived even where there are no caves, but where 
there are waters running through densely wooded swamps and char- 
acterized by dark holes where poor sight is no handicap to the fish. 
When a blind mutation arose in that family of fishes living in the region 
of limestone caves of Indiana and Kentucky, that mutation was no 
handicap to its possessor. For the possessor had other sense organs 
sufficient to secure its prey. ‘The waters of the cave, indeed, removed 
competition; and in other ways afforded an extraordinarily favorable 
environment for this genus of fish. 

Another illustration may be afforded by still another group of ani- 
mals. As you know there are vast numbers of molluscs living in the sea 
and in fresh waters; clams, oysters, periwinkles, cuttle fishes, squids 
are familiar marine molluses. But there is a group of molluses that has 
a history quite as striking as that of the cave fish. This group lives on 
the land, and sometimes, in very dry situations, even semi-deserts. In 
this situation the molluscs breathe by lungs instead of gills. How have 
the land molluscs—the pulmonates, including the snails and slugs— 
come to live on the land? One explanation that has been offered is 
that some marine ancestors gradually moved into streams and higher 
up into ponds which dry up periodically and there became gradually 
modified to breathe air. The matter is not quite so simple. ‘The river 
mussels live in streams and ponds that occasionally go dry; they perish 
under these circumstances by the million; and yet they have never 
become adapted to land life—the appropriate mutations have never 
_been afforded. Our land snails are the end result of a long series of 
mutations that have permitted life on the land. The first mutations 
in this direction occurred in certain marine snails with a gill chamber 
whose opening is so small that it can readily be closed to prevent the 
ingress or egress of water. Any mutation in this direction would enable 
its possessor to enter into the between-tides zone. 

Actually, there live on our shores shore snails, belonging to the fam- 
ily of Littorinidae inhabiting a level where they are exposed to air for 
12 to 20 hours of the day. Indeed, among the Littorinas one finds 
species that differ greatly in their emancipation from the sea. During 


326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


the recession of the tides the Littorina keeps the opening to its mantle 
chamber closed; so its gills are held in a medium of saturated air (fig. 4). 

Now, it is out of this general group to which the Littorinas belong 
that the land snails have arisen. Any continued mutation in the 
direction of gill reduction or enclosure of the mantle cavity would have 
been in the direction that would have permitted the possessor to pass to 
dryer parts of the shore line and, incidentally, to escape from its 
enemies. The point is that not just any group of marine snails was 
able to adjust itself to land life, but only a group in which favorable 
mutations arose. The land crabs and the lung fishes represent the end 
stages of a similar evolutionary history to that of the land snails. 

While it appears from these considerations probable that adjust- 
ment to extreme conditions of life has been 
rendered possible by favorable mutations, it 
still remains to consider what light modern 
genetical studies throw upon the details of this 
process. 

We have seen that reproduction is unlimited 
and that mutation is constantly occurring; not 
to be sure in infinite amount in all directions 
equally but abundantly in certain genes; more 
rarely in others. We have now to consider in 
turn what induces mutations; what gives direc- 
Fig. 4—Littorina litorea. tion to mutations; how are the adaptations in 

nature brought about ? 

First, the causes of mutation are clearly determined, in part, by 
the unstable nature of the gene itself. The genes are very complex 
molecules, or rather groups of molecules. Now, many complex mole- 
cules are known in chemistry that are so labile that they break down 
almost spontaneously. How many compounds have to be kept in the 
dark, at a low temperature, undisturbed in order that they may “‘keep”’ ~ 
at all. In time they “‘spoil’’, even under the best of conditions. The 
rate of change may be accelerated by heat, light and irradiation. The 
genes are not exceptions to the rule of change in labile substances. 
While the nature of the process of mutation in the genes has shown 
itself little influenced by external agents the velocity of spontaneous 
change is readily altered. Thus Muller, Hanson and others find the 
speed of mutation accelerated by increase of temperature, and by X- 
rays. No new mutations have been brought forth by the X-rays, but 
mutation occurs more rapidly. The X-rays do not direct evolution, 





AuGuST 19, 1930 DAVENPORT: MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION O21 


or even mutation, qualitatively, but afford opportunity for more 
rapid evolution by providing, in larger amount, one of the factors—mu- 
tation—necessary to evolution. 

The fact that X-rays may accelerate the process of gene mutation 
has led some to the conclusion that all mutation is due to radiations. 
No doubt conditions compatible with the life of the soma may be 
found that will not permit of mutation, but it does not seem probable 
that this will ever be the case. Just the conditions essential to life 
probably provide the conditions for gene mutation. 

Second, what gives direction to mutations? It is obvious that the 
organic world is far from being the infinitely diverse collection of hap- 
hazard and meaningless variants that we might expect were mutation 
entirely uncontrolled. It seems probable that, under ordinary condi- 
tions, genes break down or disintegrate in orderly fashion dependent on 
the nature of the gene. An illustration, which may be more than a 
mere illustration, is afforded in the rare earths where uranium breaks 
down into radium and radium into lead. Each stage, in turn, is deter- 
mined by the immediately preceding stage. 

So, in organisms, the mutations are usually of a recessive nature, 
which seems generally to imply that they are produced by a loss of 
something from the parental gene. In the different species of one 
genus the same kind of mutations occur. Thus between Drosophila 
melanogaster, D. simulans and D. virilis quite parallel mutations occur 
and are identified in many cases with genes occupying comparable loci 
in the chromosomes. Among mammals with which we are naturally 
best acquainted certain mutations occur again and again. Thus albi- 
nism, coat-color-pattern, hairlessness, elongated hair, reversed hair, 
taillessness, abnormal hands and feet, particularly digits, horns or 
hornlessness, achondroplasia. ‘The recurrence of these mutations 
in various species of mammals, as tabulated by Osborn (1912), indi- 
cates that mutations are far from haphazard in origin, but probably 
depend upon the same genes with the same structure and capacity 
for change. 

Finally, the mutations with which we are familiar constitute only a 
fraction of those that occur. Every student of intra-uterine stages 
of mammalian development is familiar with the phenomenon of intra- 
uterine deaths. So far as our observations go, it appears that in 
mammals more young die in wtero than are born. Every student of 
development of sea urchins and other marine organisms knows that a 
large proportion of those that start to develop do not proceed far. We 


328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


see that early developmental stages are those in which great selection 
takes place; probably because the embryos carry non-viable mutations. 
From this point of view the individuals that reach maturity constitute 
the fraction that have undergone no lethal mutation. 

The fact of lethal mutations (for they have been demonstrated. in 
many cases) helps us to understand the other fact that in the midst of 
the world of mutations the organisms that come through are more or 
less well fitted to survive; they are not always the best, but they are 
good enough to pass the censorship of environment. 

And this brings us to a consideration of the phenomenon which 
Darwin stressed, namely, of adaptation to environment. We have. 
already seen that such adaptation is partly brought about through the 
selection by the organism of an environment that is adapted to it. We 
may now consider the case of selection by the environment of organisms 
that are adapted toit. In general, the organism must be able to play 
properly its part in the flow, in and out, of the chemical agents, water 
and food stuffs, upon which its life and activity depend. It must be 
capable of meeting emergencies of climate and organic enemies. It 
must pass the censor at every stage or be squelched. 

A little experience of my own, on which I published some years ago, 
will serve to show how strict is this censor. I reared a large number of 
chickens to the one pound stage and had about 300 running over a 
grassy plot on about the tenth of May, at a time when crows are feeding 
their nestlings and hunting especially meat for them. About 40 per 
cent of the birds had a white plumage, 40 per cent a black (or nearly 
black) plumage and 20 per cent a plumage in pencilled, or striped 
markings, more or less like that of the ordinary game, or the jungle 
fowl. Of these the crows killed 24. Expectation, on the basis of 
random attack on the birds, was that about 9.6 would be white, 9.6 
black and 5 pencilled. Actually there were killed ten white, thirteen 
black or prevailingly so, and one coarsely mottled gray and buff. No 
truly pencilled bird was killed. This observation tends to illustrate 
the principle that the self-colors in wild birds tend to be eliminated 
because conspicuous to their enemies; birds with mixed pattern are 
relatively immune from attack because relatively inconspicuous. 

Now, though it has not been experimentally proven, yet the hypoth- 
esis may be entertained, that the presence of light colored mice in 
limestone regions and of dark colored mice on lava beds may result 
from an elimination of mutations that are in disharmony with the back- 
ground. ‘To nocturnal predaceous animals, like the owls which catch 


AuausT 19, 19830 DAVENPORT: MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION 329 


mice, a white or light yellow mouse on a black lava bed would be seen 
and captured before a black one. 

One further fact must be taken into account in considering the ad- 
justment of organisms to their environment, and that is that change of 
environment may well cause, and apparently has in the past often 
caused, the elimination of species over the whole extent of their area of 
destruction. 

Consider how wide-spread must have been the consequences on the 
fauna of the northern hemisphere as far south as Long Island and even 
further south of the great ice sheets that covered the circumpolar terri- 
tory in glacial epochs. Many poorly clad species of mammals must 
have found the icy conditions insupportable; just as the mastodon and 
mammoth did. The change in environment may be of a more subtle 
sort. Thus the great size and herd instincts of the bison enabled it to 
develop enormously on the extensive plains of North America and 
rendered it more than a match for the Amerinds living in a stone age. 
Just this size and number wholly unfitted these mammals for the new 
environment of the agressive, agriculturally inclined white man, armed 
with a rifle. Agriculture and free-ranging bisons could not coexist 
and the rifle eliminated the mammals. So today the great size and 
ageressiveness of the large mammals of Africa are a challenge to the 
sportsman and the future seems to spell extinction for them. Here we 
have to do with elimination resulting from what may be called a cul- 
tural evolutionary ‘‘mutation’’—the rifle. 

But man’s part in evolution is not merely in the elimination of his 
large enemies, which he has all too thoroughly mastered, but in his 
struggle with the small and innumerable insects that threaten his agri- 
culture as it becomes more intense. ‘The more successful and prolific 
an insect injurious to agriculture is the more certainly will it arouse 
man’s destructive energies and the greater the certainty that the all 
too favorable mutation that is the cause of its success will be the cause 
of its elimination in whole, or part. 

But mutations of a still more dangerous sort are threatening man- 
kind—mutations in the world of organisms that live as parasites on the 
human protoplasm. With the more conspicuous of these parasites, 
external and internal, man has learned to cope. One by one the 
pathogenic bacterial diseases are being eliminated or reduced in fre- 
quency. But now we face still smaller parasitic particles—the filter- 
able viruses—which are, at present, practically inaccessible to man. 
There seems to be reason to conclude that they are mutating, also, and 


30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


perhaps rapidly. The waves of influenza epidemics that pass round 
the world in periodic fashion assume slightly different aspects—show 
somewhat different symptoms—in successive visits. Those who are 
resistant to the one visitation may show slight resistance to the next. 
The selections of the past have left the stocks of the more crowded con- 
tinental areas a hardy resistant people—far more so than the peoples of 
distant oceanic islands that had not undergone selection for resistance 
to the ultra-microscopic parasites. When one contemplates the high 
mortality of the influenza epidemic of 1918 one realizes that notwith- 
standing this high resistance it 1s quite within the range of possibility 
that at some future time a mutation shall arise in these viruses such 
that no human protoplasm is protected against it or can protect itself 
against it. Then our boasted skyscrapers might become inhabited by 
bats and the safe deposit vaults of our cities become the caves of wild 
animals. 

Whether or not this will occur in the future, the possibility brings 
home a realization of the fact that man is not merely looking on the 
process of evolution taking place around him but, as an organism, 
he is a part of that evolution; he is acting upon other organisms and 
being acted upon by them as well as by the inorganic world in which he 
lives. He is attempting a mastery of that world; and, indeed, upon 
such mastery his fate may depend. His ability to master that world 
depends upon his superior gifts of intelligence to see relations and to 
idealize new ones. How much farther man can go in this direction 
depends upon the capacity for development of the intelligence. There 
are those who warn us that we are approaching the limit and must 
sometime in the future wait for further human evolution to make fur- 
ther fundamental progress. ‘To wait until nature affords the desired 
mutation may mean indefinite postponement. Can not man himself 
control his evolution? ‘Two methods are open; one the production of 
new and better combinations of traits by appropriate matings. This 
is the method of the applied geneticist interested in creating new and 
improved varieties. This is the method that is open to man also, if 
only some change in the social order may make it feasible to apply our 
knowledge to the improvement of the genetical combinations in man- 
kind. 

But still another way may be opened in the future; that is the 
acceleration of mutation by irradiation. ‘The method is fraught with 
tremendous difficulties. The commonest effect of irradiation of the 
gonads is the production of defective, often happily non-viable individ- 


AucustT 19, 1930 HAY: PLEISTOCENE PALEONTOLOGY aol 


uals. Whether the production of scores of defective strains to secure 
one line with a superior mutation is justified will have to be considered. 
But if man is to evolve he must not decline to use nature’s tools of 
mutation, cross-mating, selective elimination while he seeks to become 
fitted to meet the requirements of an ever changing and ever more- 
demanding environment. 

To sum up, then, the mechanism of organic evolution, as I see it, 
consists of the following processes :— 

1. Infinite capacity of the germinal material for reproduction. 

2. Infinite capacity for mutation. 

3. An infinitude of kinds of environments. 

4, Extensive opportunities for dissemination of the mutant individ- 
uals over earth, permitting some of them to find an environment 
for which they are especially fitted. 

5. As for the rest of the infinitude of individuals, non-mutant and 
mutant (beyond the number required for replacement) elim- 
ination. 

In a sentence, nature’s mechanism of evolution includes the elements 
of: an infinitude of kinds of environments, infinite reproduction, infi- 
nite mutation, infinite opportunity for new mutants to find appropriate 
environments and elimination of all of the infinitude of other individ- 
uals that are not required for replacement. 

Homo sapiens is only a natural species with a highly evolved hand 
and brain. ‘This species has reached its lofty position in evolution 
by the processes described. It is proud of its control of nature in cer- 
tain directions. Let it beware lest it think it can evolve further by a 
man-made formula that may suit its perverted desires but must even- 
tually fail of permanent progress if opposed to the formula of nature. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Remarks on Dr. George G. Simpson’s work on 
the Pleistocene paleonotology of Florida.t OuivER P. Hay, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 


Recently Dr. George G. Simpson, of the American Museum of Nat- 
ural History, New York, has published a number of papers on the 
Pleistocene paleontology of Florida. They are important communica- 
tions, and with the activity of this author and others now interested 
in this subject the paleontology of Florida must soon become much 
better understood. It is with regret that I must present some criti- 


1 Received May 12, 1930. 


302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, no. 14 


cisms on Dr. Simpson’s conclusions. I shall be concerned especially 
with his paper entitled: The extinct land mammals of Florida,? and 
with another having the title: Pleistocene mammalian fauna of the 
Seminole Field, Pinellas County, Florida. 

In this latter paper Dr. Simpson discusses the correlation of he 
Pleistocene deposits; and he credits the present writer with having 
expressed the most definite opinions on the subject. He states that 
these opinions seem largely to rest on three assumptions, of which 
the following is the first: That each local fauna studied is actually an 
assemblage of contemporaneous mammais. 

Dr. Simpson! says that this is illustrated in the case of the so-called 
Peace Creek fauna, “‘elements of which were largely derived from both 
Pleistocene and older deposits.’”’ My list of the mammals collected 
near Arcadia is found on page 381 of Publication No. 322 of the Car- 
negie Institution of Washington. Of that list of 15 mammals there is, 
I believe, only one, Hipparion ingenuum, whose Pleistocene age can be 
fairly questioned; and that this Hipparion may have continued on 
even into the Aftonian is again suggested by the recent discovery by 
Simpson’ of the “three apparently Pliocene species Hipparion in- 
genuum, H. plicatile, and Serridentinus sp.,’’ along Itchatucknee River, 
Florida, associated with Pleistocene fossils. 

Dr. Simpson recalls also my reference’ of the fossils of the Alachua 
clays to the Nebraskan stage. In this case there are involved Gompho- 
therium floridanum, Procamelus, two species of rhinoceroses, Hipparion, 
and Parahippus. Dr. Simpson declares these genera are certainly not 
younger than Middle Pliocene. Now I am willing to admit that I was 
probably wrong in this assignment; but for this action I gave my 
reasons; and, whatever the probabilities, nobody ought to express him- 
self as certain that these genera, or some of them, did not continue 
on into the first glacial stage, where I put them. The Pleistocene 
climate of Florida has been inordinately extolled and it was probably 
as “congenial’”’ during the last half of the Pliocene as it was later, or 
more so. 

I am further supposed’ to have nurtured the assumption that the 
Pleistocene mammalian sequence js certainly known, if only in part, 

2 State Geol. Survey, 20th Ann. Rept. 1929: 229-279. 

’ Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 56: 561-599. 1929. 

4 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 56: 569. 1929. 

5 Amer. Mus. Novitates 406: 13. 1929. 


© Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. 322: 375-378. 
7 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 56: 568. 1929. 


auGustT 19, 1930 HAY: PLEISTOCENE PALEONTOLOGY 303 


for other regions of North America, and “especially along the margins 
of the drift.’’ This assumption Dr. Simpson grants is partially 
justified; and then he follows with a sequence that I wholly repudiate, 
—one which I have never before heard expressed. The first phase is 
said to embrace the time from the earliest Pleistocene to just before 
the close of the epoch. During this phase Hipparion was absent, 
“Hquus occurred, tapirs and camels were present, and most of the 
smaller animals and all of the larger ones were of now extinct species.” 

Now, there was no such natural phase or stage of evolution or 
extinction. There was no known time in the Pleistocene, at least 
after the Nebraskan, when most of the smaller animals and all of the 
larger ones belonged to now extinct species. According to Simpson, 
some of the ground sloths and peccaries continued on into his second 
phase, and certainly he might have mentioned many other mammals. 
This phase was partly late Pleistocene, partly ‘“‘post-glacial,’’ which is 
Recent. What important biological or geological events happened to 
distinguish this phase from the first; and what occasion is there for 
recognizing a third phase which does not belong to the Pleistocene? 
And what authority has he for saying that no elephant, no mastodon, 
no tapir, no peccary, no ground sloth lived on into the Recent? 

Cope is credited with contributing to this history of paleontology. 
Cope and Marsh and Dall instinctively avoided such an allocation of 
the faunas of the Plains, of Texas, and of Florida, and put them in the 
Pliocene, until G. K. Gilbert convinced them of their error. It was 
left for a younger generation to rush to the other extreme and to 
accept the doctrine that any Pleistocene animal may be found at any 
stage of the Pleistocene and in any locality. 

Dr. Simpson’s first phase occupied some 400,000 years and glided 
into his second and third phases without having ushered in any critical 
event. 

I regard it as incontestable that any adequate assemblage of Pleisto- 
cene fossils collected anywhere outside of the glaciated regions, west or 
south, will contain a much higher percentage of extinct species and 
genera than will be found in any deposit overlying any drift after the 
Nebraskan. During the Kansan glacial stage is probably where a 
paleontological break occurs. The pre-Kansan fauna, varying some- 
what with latitude, longitude, elevation and climate, embracing 
ground sloths, glyptodonts, megatheres, numbers of horses, camels, 
Elephas imperator, EL. columbi, and Stegomastodon, extends from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Gulf to the south border of the 


334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


drift. As long as geologists, paleontologists and anthropologists stand 
on glaciated lands they are held down to definite periods of time, but 
once outside the drift deposits they feel free to refer any long-ago ex- 
tinct animal to a time within a few hundred years, especially if its 
presence menaces the theory of the late appearance of man. 

Dr. Simpson adds that it is especially along the margins of the drift 
that I believe that the mammalian sequence is known.? Quite the 
contrary. The drift sheets and the drift margins simply conceal the 
ancient fauna, the Aftonian, from view. In deposits lying on the 
Kansan drift, and Illinoian drift and the Wisconsin, from Cape Cod to 
the Rocky Mountains, are found the extinct members of the late 
fauna. In these deposits occur Mylodon, Megalonyx, Canis, bears, 
the American mastodon in abundance, Hlephas boreus in abundance, 
one or two horses only, a few bison, peccaries, and possibly any 
species now living in the glaciated region; but so far as yet discovered, 
no megathere, no Nothrothervum, no Glyptodon, no long-jawed masto- 
don, no Hlephas imperator, no Stegomastodon, no large number of 
species of horses, no camels. If the Kansan and succeeding drifts were 
swept away, the early fossils would probably come into view. For 
when you pass the margins of the drift sheets or even before, where 
erosion has cut down to the the first interglacial deposits, you are 
likely to meet with the forms not found on the drift. 

I take no account of the margins of the drift, except to note that 
south and west of them occur remains of a very rich fauna containing 
a high percentage of extinct animals, while north of them is found, 
usually near the surface, a much more improverished assemblage of 
mammals. In western Iowa have been collected from first interglacial 
beds Hlephas wmperator, Stegomastodon, Camelops, and species of Hquus. 
If now these forms continued to exist during later stages in that region, 
can anybody explain why they so carefully avoided leaving any traces 
of themselves in any glacial or interglacial deposit east of Missouri 
River, while leaving abundant records of their existence west of the 
river? 

I am also said to assume that the sequence of mammalian forms was 
essentially the same in Florida as in other regions of North America. 
I have presented reasons for adoption of this view and nobody has yet 
undertaken to disprove my positions in acomprehensive manner. Ido 
not see why Florida formed a special case. 


8 Op. cit., p. 568. 


august 19, 1930 HAY: PLEISTOCENE PALEONTOLOGY 300 


In arguing against this so-called assumption, Dr. Simpson states 
that the Florida mammals, when well known, generally prove to be of 
different species from those of the north and west. When his list of 
land mammals of Florida, existing and extinct® is examined it is seen 
that 63 species are listedin the Pleistocene; 38 of these are animals found 
north and west of Florida; and 25 species peculiar to Florida. This 
amounts to 61 per cent of the mammalian forms that are found outside 
of Florida and 38 per cent that belong in Florida alone. It is doubtful 
if the peculiar forms occurring there are more numerous than would be 
found in any other region where the smaller species have been collected 
and studied; and no doubt many of these Floridian species will here- 
after be discovered elsewhere. On studying Barnum Brown’s list of 
fossils found in Conard fissure, Arkansas, I find little difference. 

It is a pleasure to find that Dr. Simpson is so closely in agreement 
with me on the similar composition of all the collections that have been 
assigned to the Aftonian stage in Florida. We disagree only on the 
time of the deposition of these fossils. I hold that those animals were 
buried there during perhaps the whole of the Aftonian and perhaps a 
part of the Kansan stage; Dr. Simpson argues against the probability of 
this. 

As regards the deposit No. 3, there may be indeed extraneous fossils 
init. Iwas led to refer it to the Kansan stages because the geologists 
insisted that deposition had been continuous with bed No. 2, and this 
bed I hold is first interglacial. In No. 3 there are certainly both ex- 
tinct and yet existing species, but it is hardly fair to declare the extinct 
species as having been derived from No. 2 unless there is evidence of 
that origin. Deposition went on very slowly during the formation of 
this bed and apparently during the whole Pleistocene in this region. 

In his paper on the fossils of the Seminole Field!®° Dr. Simpson 
regards it as important that the Melbourne collections contain so 
many species quite indistinguishable from those still living in the same 
region. He finds no evidence in any group of more than subspecific 
advance from that time to this. In this observation he again supports 
what I have more than once asserted, namely, that since the Aftonian 
stage there has occurred little or no evolution of specific forms. And 
I am permitted by Mr. Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., associate curator of mam- 
mals in the U.S. National Museum, to say that he has seen no evidence 


9 State Geol. Survey 20: 251. 
10 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 56: 571. 1929. 


336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


that during the Pleistocene there has been, among the mammals, any 
development beyond that of subspecies. If there has occurred since 
early Pleistocene times the rapidity of development of new species 
implied by Dr. Simpson, I ask him what kinds of mammals lived during 
the early Pleistocene and where they have been collected? My belief 
is that the Melbourne fossils are those early Pleistocene mammals 
and that our existing species lived at that time. I might be willing 
to admit that some early forms may have undergone some of the mi- 
nute changes which we think justify new specific names, but which other 
persons might not recognize as sufficient. Evolution is a slow process. 

Dr. Simpson states that it has been genera rather than species that 
have survived. That is true, for the simple reason that a genus 
usually embraces more than one species and as long as one of these 
survives the genus continues. He also thinks that it is very excep- 
tional that all the species of a genus in an area as large as North 
America should become extinct simultaneously. I do not see why 
this may not have sometimes happened, especially in the cases of 
genera including few species. . 

On another page, Dr. Simpson grants! that as high as 70 per cent 
of the Melbourne mammal fossils belong to extinct species. Usually 
such a high percentage of extinct species is accepted as an evidence of 
antiquity. On the next page he claims that it is no solution of the 
question to say that this extinction took place between the early and 
middle Pleistocene rather than between the late Pleistocene and the 
Recent. However, no one has claimed that all that 70 per cent of ex- 
tinction occurred during that early stage. Not all the extinct mam- 
mals found in the Melbourne beds became extinct at that Aftonian 
time; comparatively few of them. The others perished at various 
later times, even up to the Recent. The common mastodon and 
Elephas columbi and Castoroides and many others of that fauna con- 
tinued on until after the last glacial stage. My contention is that 
some of the species, as Elephas imperator and the few camels and the 
saber-tooth tiger and Megatherium and Chlamytherium died out then, 
for they have never been found in deposits whose later age can be 
demonstrated. And it would be strange surely if all those species had 
lived on through three or four glacial stages and then perished without 
any adequate explanation. Now, can Dr. Simpson or anybody else 
say anything against this statement? 


11 Op. cit., p. 570. 


AuGusT 19,. 1930 HAY: PLEISTOCENE PALEONTOLOGY 337 


But that is exactly the doctrine that Dr. Simpson is supporting: 
That all the species of horses found in Florida, all of the tapirs, all of 
the great sloths of various genera; all of the armadillos, all the elephants 
and mastodons; all of the capybaras, all the bisons, and all the species 
of several genera of peccaries; all of these lived on until in the late 
Pleistocene or to the Recent and then, in a time geologically brief, were 
swept out of existence. This is not all. There are those who apply 
this late existence and rather recent extinction to these genera over the 
whole of North America. Elephas imperator, and the camels are 
reported to have lived possibly within a few hundred years. 

At this point reference may be made to Dr. Simpson’s statement in 
his foot-note on Bison.2 Iam unaware who has so positively asserted 
that the occurrence of an extinct species of Bison is indicative of an 
early Pleistocene age. 

It seems necessary to discuss again the climate of Florida during 
glacial stages. Dr. Simpson adheres to the idea that this state fur- 
nished an asylum where obsolescent groups survived beyond the time of 
those farther north. I have considered the statement that the climate 
of Florida has been more favorable for animal life than the northern 
states.2 I have shown that the state of Illinois has harbored within 
historical times quite as many species of mammals as Florida; while 
the mountainous region of Colorado has offered an asylum to a consid- 
erably greater number than Florida. 

Some of our vertebrate paleontologists appear to have evolved 
their theories of the glacial stages from the depths of their unaided 
consciousness, instead of from the writings of geologists and explorers 
and from personal exploration. On.page 485 of Chamberlin and Salis- 
bury’s Geology is a fine discussion of the climatic conditions in front 
of a continental glacier. Further definite information can be secured 
from an examination of Pirsson and Schuchert’s glacial map on page 
945 of their Text Book of Geology. ‘There it is shown, that, at some 
time, or at some times, during the Pleistocene, local glaciers far more 
extensive than those of the Recent epoch occupied the great range of 
the Andes, even on the equator; also in the Himalayas, and on the 
equator in Africa. It is evident that during a glacial stage the tempera- 
ture of the whole world was lowered. It is evident, too, that in front 
of the continental glacier there was an arctic climate; farther away, 
a subarctic, a subtemperate, etc., each extending south for hundreds of 


12 Op. cit:, p. 569: 
13 THis JOURNAL 19: 469. 1929. 


338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


miles. That map ought to bring conviction to even those paleontol- 
ogists who were the promoters of the idea that in Iowa, during the 
Nebraskan or the Kansan stage, camels, elephants, ground sloths, 
horses, and musk-oxen lived together in the immediate front of the 
glacier. It has been suggested that at least these animals migrated 
thither during the warm summers; but on what food did they appease 
their appetites? Did they all alike subsist on rock-lichens and moss? 

The writer does not object to the most complete investigation of the 
geology and paleontology of Florida; but that alone will probably not 
furnish a solution of the age of the Melbourne fauna. The problem is 
a more general one. The mammals of North America during the 
Pleistocene did not consist of three, or even more, distinct assemblages 
occupying different tracts of the continent. They were of triple 
origin, but they formed one faunal assemblage. ‘This varied somewhat 
in composition according to temperature, moisture, kind and abun- 
dance of food, the stage of the epoch, and the like, but there were 
almost everywhere many genera and not a few species which ranged 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Aftonian to the close of 
the Wisconsin. There were also subregions, occupied by peculiar 
genera and species, as there are today. 

On the other hand, there was one wide-prevailing cause of disaster 
which operated at four or five times simultaneously on this whole 
assemblage of mammals. This was the occurrence of continental 
glaciations and the consequent lowering of the temperature, disturb- 
ance of weather conditions, general expatriations and repatriations of 
the mammalian inhabitants, and the extinction of many important 
genera and species. 

If the glacialists are correct in their conclusions, the arctic climate 
was transferred at one time from its present limits to the Ohio River 
at Louisville, a distance of about 1,600 miles. From this border to 
central Florida is about 800 miles. We know that at our own day 
winter storms penetrate this interval and produce severe damage on 
vegetation and doubtless on animals also; but how much more injury 
and suffering and death must have been inflicted by storms starting 
over the ice fields at a high elevation, and sweeping as far south as 
Florida. 

Dr. Simpson describes'* a species to which he assigns the name 
Boreostracon floridanus. He also gives an abstract of the discovery 
and naming of previously collected materials which were referred to 


14 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 56: 581. 1929. 


AuaustT 19, 1930 HAY: PLEISTOCENE PALEONTOLOGY 309 


the genus Glyptodon, as G. petaliferus and G. rivipacis; and he ends by 
declaring that these names are nomina nuda. Accordingly these 
species and the genus are excluded from his lists of Florida fossils. 
Here Dr. Simpson is mistaken. A nomen nudum is a name only, one 
without description, figure or a reference to one or all of these. Both 
of the names mentioned are based on type specimens which are pre- 
served, on descriptions, and on figures, and these names must therefore 
be respected. JI am reproached with failure to provide diagnoses as 
required by the nomenclatural code. On the contrary, in citing the 
original descriptions and figures, I did all that code requires. It may 
be that the fossils do not belong in the genus Glyptodon, but the specific 
name petaliferus for Cope’s specimen and rivipacis for the one found 
in Florida must be retained. On any day some lucky collector may 
gather materials that will reinstate these species to their proper posi- 
tion. As for the other specimens found in Texas and Oklahoma, if 
Dr. Simpson can withdraw them from the genus and species to which 
I assign them, he is at liberty to do so. Otherwise they must stand 
until somebody can define them to his satisfaction. 

In referring to the age of the fossils found by J. W. Gidley and Kirk 
Bryan in the San Pedro Valley, southeastern Arizona, Dr. Simpson 
sustains the assignment of the formations and fossils to the Pliocene. 
The present writer has always doubted the correctness of this action. 
Whether this doubt is justified or not, the deposit must be very close to 
the parting between the Tertiary and the Pleistocene. The presence 
of two or three well developed, but as yet undetermined, species of 
Equus attests to this; and I believe that the existence of any species 
of this genus in the Pliocene has not been demonstrated. As to the 
evidence on the part of geology on this point, it is improbable that any 
geologist can distinguish in that region, between late Pliocene deposits 
and those of the Nebraskan stage of the Pleistocene. Gidley details 
the reasons why the choice might be in favor of the Pleistocene and 
those why the Pliocene received the preference. The mastodons are 
said to be of distinctly Pliocene type; but certainly Stegomastodon is 
well known in the first interglacial stage. Also all of the species of 
rodents belong to existing genera and, although no existing species 
is recognized, several are admitted to be close to modern forms. The 
decisive elements in the correlation are for Gidley the presence of the 
genera Hipparion, Plhiohippus, Pliauchenia, Merycodus and Glypto- 
therrum. On Hipparion as having furnished one or more Pleistocene 


15 Op. cit., p. 583. 


340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


species I have given my opinion more than once, that it came up into 
the Pleistocene. Pliohippus has been referred with doubt more than 
once to the Pleistocene. Merycodus, as well as the genera Pliohippus 
and Pliauchenia, are fertile of species in the Pliocene and that they 
should continue to live in the earliest Pleistocene would not be surpris- 
ing. It will be necessary for vertebrate paleontologists to recognize 
the existence of a Nebraskan stage of the Pleistocene, and no good 
reason has been presented why only a very few genera of large Plio- 
cene animals should pass the line. 

We come now to the genus Glyptotherium. 'The type of the genus 
was described from the Upper Pliocene formation, the Blanco. I think 
that no good reason can be assigned why the genus may not have 
continued on also into the beginning of the Pleistocene. Dr. Simpson 
has expressed the view that the correlation of a collection ought to be 
based on the more recent genera involved. In the present case it 
appears that he and Gidley have reversed the principle, inasmuch as 
they lay more weight on the Tertiary genera Hipparion, Pliohippus, 
Merycodus, Pliauchenia than on the on-coming genera Equus, Lama, 
Odocoileus, and the on-coming genera of rodents. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 


228TH MEETING 


The 228th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on 
the evening of Thursday, December 19, 1929. The meeting was the first of 
a series devoted to Genesis and Development, or Origin and Evolution. The 
purpose and plan of the series of addresses on this subject were first explained 
by W. J. Humpureys, Chairman of the Committee on Meetings. The 
principal speaker of the evening, Dr. L. H. ApAms of the Geophysical Labora- 
tory, then gave the first of the series, entitled The Creation of the Earth. The 
Earth revolves around a sun which is merely one of many millions of stars 
in our galaxy, which in turn is only one of a very large number of similar 
galaxies, or spiral nebulae, scattered throughout space. The individual 
stars are in constant motion but the average distance apart is so great that 
not often will two stars collide or even approach near to each other. There 
is little doubt, however, that this rare event did happen about two thousand 
million years ago, the close approach of another star to the Sun being the 
first step in-the origin of the Earth. The gravitational attraction caused 
tidal phenomena on a grand scale. Great protuberances were finally pulled 
entirely away from the Sun, and these masses after subsequent cooling to 
a liquid and then to a solid state became the Earth and the other planets of 
the solar system. During the last stages of crystallization the water of the 
oceans and the gases of the primitive atmosphere were evolved. Geologic 
history was then about to begin. (Author’s abstract.) 


AucusT 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY O41 


229TH MEETING 


The 229th meeting, being the 32d annual meeting of the Academy, was 
held in the auditorium of the National Museum on the evening of Tuesday, 
January 14,1930. The meeting was called to order by Vice-President ApAms. 
The retiring President, Dr. ALES HrpuicKa, delivered his presidential ad- 
dress, the subject being Organic Evolution, its Problems and Perplezities. 
This address has been published in Science for February 28, 1930. 

At the close of the address there was a short intermission, after which the 
business meeting was called to order by the President. 

The Recording Secretary, W. D. LamBnrt, read the minutes of the 31st 
annual meeting, which were ordered approved. 

The Corresponding Secretary, L. B. TuckmRMAN, presented his report for 
the preceding year. ‘The deaths of eighteen members were reported during 
the year, namely: 


JAMES P. AULT | D.S. Lams. 

R. W. Batcom : G. P. MERRILL 

Ericu BrEcHER JOHN F. Moran 

Emite BERLINER C. W. RicHARDSON 

A. W. BoswELL RosBert RipGway 

H. C. FRANKENFIELD Puiuie 8. Roy 

J. GOLDBERGER EH. EK. SLhosson 

Carrey V. HopGson Francis A. TONDORF 
' K. Lester JONES P. A. YopER 


On January 1, 1930, the membership consisted of 15 honorary members, 3 
patrons and 551 members, one of whom was a life member. The total 
membership was 570, of whom 368 reside in or near the District of Columbia, 
173 in other parts of the continental United States, and 34 in foreign countries. 

The Board of Managers held three meetings which considered, in addition 
to routine business, the proposed revision of the By-Laws, the proposed series 
of lectures on Origin and Evolution, and the policies of the Journal. 

The report of the Corresponding Secretary was ordered accepted. 

The annual report of the Recording Secretary was presented by him. Five 
public meetings were held. The names of the speakers and their subjects 
were given. The report was ordered accepted. 

The annual report of the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, was presented by him. 
Receipts during the year were $8,315.06, including $2600 of investments 
paid off. Total disbursements were $7,509.30, including $3000 of investment 
and reinvestment. ‘The cash balance on Dec. 31, 1929, was $2,798.70, with 
current accounts payable estimated at.$400. The value of investments of 
the Academy was $18,936.37, the total assets $21,882.45, and the estimated 
net worth $21,209.95. 

The report of the Auditing Committee, consisting of Messrs. O. H. Gisu, 
W. D. Sutciirrs and R. E. Grspson, was presented by Mr. GisH. The report 
showed the accounts of the Treasurer to be correct and the securities on hand 
as stated in his report. 

The reports of the Auditing Committee and the Treasurer were ordered 
accepted. 

The report of the Board of Editors was presented by the Senior Editor, 
J.B. Rexusipe, JR. 

Volume 19 of the Journal consisted of 490 pages, a smaller number than 
jn previous years. The cost of the Journal, including the Academy’s share 


342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


of the expense of reprints, was $6.73 per page, an increase of $0.13. The 
volume was illustrated by 27 half-tones and 30 line cuts. The report showed 
the distribution of articles among the various sciences and stated that there 
had been no changes in policy. ‘The report was ordered accepted. 

The Corresponding Secretary presented the proposed revised By-Laws. 
These By-Laws were submitted at a meeting of the Academy held May 18, 
1928, and have been considered by the Board of Managers and been recom- 
mended by them for adoption in amended form, as printed in the Journal for 
December 19, 1929. 

It was moved, seconded and carried that the new By-Laws, as reeommended 
by the Managers, be adopted, to take effect on March 1, 1930, with the 
understanding that all officers elected under the present By-Laws hold office 
until their successors are elected. It was stated that this form of motion was 
intended to avoid possible confusion due to changes made in the new By-Laws 
regarding the qualifications for holding office in the Academy. 

The report of the Committee of Tellers for the Annual Election, consisting 
of K. S. Gipson, W. D. LamsBerrt and L. V. Jupson, was presented by the 
Corresponding Secretary. In accordance with the report the following officers 
of the Academy for 1930 were declared elected: 


President, WiLL1am BowIE 

Non-Resident Vice-Presidents, WALDEMAR LINDGREN, HARLOW SHAPLEY 

Corresponding Secretary, L. B. TucKERMAN 

Recording Secretary, CHARLES THOM 

Treasurer, H. G. AVERS 

Managers for the term of three years ending January 1933, P. R. Heyh 
and G. N. CoLuins 

Manager for the term of two years ending January 1932 (to fill vacancy), 
J. B. ReEsipeE, JR. 

Manager for the term of one year ending January 1931 (to fill vacancy), 
G. R. Putnam 


The new President was escorted to the chair by Past President HUMPHREYS. 
He thanked the Academy for the honor of the election. 

The Corresponding Secretary reported that the following members of the 
Academy had been nominated by the affiliated societies for Vice-Presidents: 


Archeological, Dr. WALTER HouGH 
Bacteriological, Dr. A. C. HUNTER 
Electrical Engineers, Dr. M. G. Luoyp 
Entomological, Dr. A. G. Bovine 
Geographic, Dr. F. V. CoviLLE 
Geological, Mr. 8S. R. Capps 
Helminthological, Capt. C. S. BuTLER 
Mechanical Engineers, Mr. H. L. WHITTEMORE 
Medical, Dr. H. H. Kerr 

Military Engineers, Col. C. H. BirpsEYE 
Philosophical, Mr. WALTER D. LAMBERT 


In accordance with a motion duly made, seconded and carried, the above 
nominees of the affiliated societies were declared elected Vice-Presidents. 
There being no further business presented, at 9.55 P.M. the meeting ad- 
journed. 
WALTER D. LAMBERT, Recording Secretary. 


AuGust 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 343 


230TH MEETING 


The 230th meeting of the Academy was a joint meeting with the Geological 
Society, held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on Thursday, January 
30, 1930. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M. by the President, 
Dr. Wi1iu1AM Bowls, who presented Dr. G. R. Mansriep, President of the 
Geological Society, as the active chairman of the meeting. Dr. MANsFIELp 
introduced the speaker of the evening, Mr. R. H. Saraent of the U.S. Geo- 
logical Survey, as one whose many years of personal acquaintance with the 
geography and topography of Alaska had made him the natural leader and 
adviser in the development of an air survey of that territory. 

Program: R. H. Saraent: Photographing Alaska and its glaciers from the 
avr (illustrated by three reels of pictures). 

The Alaskan Branch of the U.S. Geological Survey, which is entrusted with 
the geologic and topographic mapping of Alaska, has already completed 46 
per cent of the territory. The topographic mapping has been accomplished 
by the regular ground methods, but within the past few years, aerial photo- 
graphs as aids in mapping have come into use. The members of the Geologi- 
cal Survey realized their value in supplementing ground methods especially 
in Southeastern Alaska where the country is covered with a heavy mantle of 
timber and brush, the topography is rugged and irregular, and the climatic 
conditions are very unfavorable. Accordingly the Navy Department was 
requested by the Interior Department to make aerial photographs of this 
section of Alaska. 

In 1926 the Navy Department sent an expedition under the leadership of 
Lieutenant Ben H. Wyatt to the Territory for this purpose. Again in 1929 
a similar expedition, under the command of Lieutenant Commander A. W. 
Radford, was sent to continue this work. Each of these expeditions con- 
sisted of an airplane tender, a covered barge which was used as living and 
working quarters for the aerial and photographic sections, and four amphibian 
planes. The personnel included 110 officers and enlisted men. 

In Southeastern Alaska there are over a dozen Federal Agencies which it 
was considered might be aided by these airplane photographs. In turn, these 
agencies have boats and other equipment which could be of aid to the Navy 
expedition. Accordingly a codrdinated codperative agreement was entered 
into by all of these Federal agencies. The results of this codperation were 
most gratifying. 

The mapping cameras used have 4 lenses, 3 of which are in one huge case 
while the 4th is in a small box attached to the rear of the main case. The 
A, C and D lenses are set at an angle with the B lens in order to cover more 
country. In making an exposure all four shutters work in unison and four 
pictures are made at the same instant. Because of the obliquity of the three 
lenses, A, C and D, the negatives of these lenses are distorted and they must 
be corrected by printing them in a peculiar type of printer known as a trans- 
forming printér. The transformed print is keystone shaped. The B print is 
joined with these keystone prints to make one large photograph. 

From these pictures the cartographic data is taken by a special method. 
Over 13,000 of these combined photographs, covering an area of over 23,000 
square miles, will be in the possession of the Geological Survey when they 
have been printed. As an aid to topographic mapping they are invaluable. 

In addition to these mapping photographs, many excellent and valuable 
oblique pictures were taken over the side of the planes. These photographs 


344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


were taken as part of the codperative scheme. ‘They included many views 
of areas of timber for the Forest Service, water power for the Federal Power 
Commission, views along the International Boundary for the Interstate 
Boundary Commission, of lighthouses for the Light House Service, and moun- 
tains and glaciers for the Geological Survey. These are all of economic and 
scientific value. 

The members of the Forest Service, which bureau is entrusted with the 
administrating and development of the Forest of Alaska, have found these 
pictures most valuable. The mapping pictures assist them in estimating and 
evaluating the timber of the district. The oblique photographs serve for de- 
tailed studies of particular stands of timber, mountain passes, water power, 
harbors and other items of economic importance. 

There is no way of evaluating the worth of these expeditions but it is cer- 
tain that it is great. There are concrete instances of an actual saving having 
been made of many thousands of dollars in addition to the scientific value of 
the photographs. (Author’s abstract.) 


231sT MEETING 


The 23lst meeting was held in the auditorium of the National Museum 
February 20, 1930. Dr. W. D. Lambert called the meeting to order at 8:15. 
Professor E. W. Berry of Johns Hopkins University gave an address entitled 
“The Origin and Evolution of Plants.” 

The speaker began by defining plants as “catchers and preservers of 
energy” in contrast to animals as expenders of energy. Hence, he concludes 
that the plants must have preceded animals. He referred briefly to the gen- 
erally accepted view that the earliest forms must have been marine and deli- 
cate and that practically no record occurs to cover the very early periods, then 
passed to the presentation of his series of slides showing geologic remains, 
restorations and distribution charts. Although a few of the lower forms were 
mentioned, the slides were selected to show continuity throughout geologic 
time in the developmental series from Lepidophytes, Arthrophytes, Pterido- 
phytes, Pteridosperms, ete., toward early and recent conifers. He con- 
cluded by showing distribution charts, both geologic and recent, for such 
forms as sassafras and tulip tree. Stress was put upon continuity as a domi- 
nant feature of the plant world. 


232ND MEETING 


The 232nd meeting of the AcapEMy was held in the auditorium of the 
National Museum at 8:15 P. M. on Thursday, March 20, 1930, with about 
125 persons present. President Bowe introduced Dr. Paut 8. GALTSOFF 
who gave the fourth address of the series upon the general subject of Orzgin 
and evolution. 

Program: Dr. Paut 8. Gatrsorr: Old and new concepts of the organism in 
the light of experimental studies on sponges. The cellular theory of organisms 
advanced in 1834-35 by Schleiden and Schwan had an enormous influence on 
the development of biology in the 18th century because it brought under a 
single point of view such different biological disciplines as embryology, 
heredity, physiology, and evolution. According to this theory, the key to 
the solution of various problems of these branches of biology is looked for in 
the cell which is regarded both as an anatomical and physiological unit of the 
organism. From this point of view the organism is comparable to a colony 
of cells or “‘cell state” in which by physiological division of labor and differen- 
tiation the various cells acquired different features and specialized in perform- 


AuGusT 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 345 


ing different functions. This point of view is severely criticized by the advo- 
cates of the theory of the “organism as a whole” who regard the fact that the 
organisms are built of cells of secondary importance and that the ‘‘whole”’ 
dominates over its parts. 

The author’s experiments on regeneration of sponges from completely 
separated tissue cells uphold the first point of view and may shed light on the 
nature of living organisms. In the experiments the tissue cells of a sponge are 
separated by squeezing a piece of sponge through fine silk. Then the dis- 
joined cells are placed in sea water in which they sink, begin to creep on the 
bottom, coalesce and form an aggregate which in about 10 days regenerate 
intoanewsponge. The regeneration is accomplished by the process of sorting 
out of the cells or their rearrangement so that every cell occupies again its 
right place in the organism. Superficially, at least, it seems as if an outside 
force or “intelligence”? was directing the orderly rearrangement of the de- 
stroyed individual, but the experiments prove that the behavior of the cells 
depends on physical and chemical properties of their protoplasm and the sur- 
rounding medium. For instance, no development takes place if the aggre- 
gates are placed on a greasy substance upon which the cells are unable to 
spread. It has been demonstrated also, that the development of the aggre- 
gate is due to a slow motion of the cells and that the cells of different species, 
when mixed together, fail to form a compound aggregate because the proto- 
plasm of cells of two different species fails to coalesce. 

Experiments on sponges uphold the ‘‘cell-state’’ theory of the organism since 
they show that the regeneration of the individual organism is brought about 
by the combination of individual cells; during the process there is no multipli- 
cation of cells but merely their rearrangement. (Author’s abstract.) 


233RD MEETING 


The 233rd meeting of the Academy was held in the auditorium of the 
National Museum at 8:15, Wednesday, April 16, 1930. President William 
Bowie introduced Dr. Charles B. Davenport, Director of the Department of 
Genetics of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, who delivered an address 
entitled ‘“The Mechanism of Organic Evolution.’”’ About 100 persons were 
present. 

The mechanism of organic evolution, as I see it, consists of the following 
processes :— 

1. Infinite capacity of the germinal material for reproduction. 

2. Infinite capacity for mutation. 

3. An infinitude of kinds of environments. 

4. Extensive opportunities for dissemination of the mutant individuals 
over earth, permitting some of them to find an environment for which 
they are especially fitted. 

5. As for the rest of the infinitude of individuals, non-mutant and mutant 
(beyond the number required for replacement) elimination. 

In a sentence nature’s mechanism of evolution includes the elements of: an 
infinitude of kinds of environments, infinite reproduction, infinite mutation, 
infinite opportunity for new mutants to find appropriate environments and 
elimination of all the infinitude of other individuals that are not required for 
replacement. 

Homo sapiens is only a natural species with a highly evolved hand and brain. 
This species has reached its lofty position in evolution by the processes 


346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


described. It is proud of its control of nature in certain directions. Let it- 
beware lest it think it can evolve further by man-made formula that may suit. 
its perverted desires but must eventually fail of permanent progress if opposed. 
to the formula of nature. (Author’s abstract.) 


234TH MEETING 


The 234th meeting of the Academy was held in the Auditorium of the 
National Museum at 8:15 P.M. on Thursday, May 15, 1930. President 
WILLIAM Bowls introduced the speaker, Professor Maynarp M. Mercaur of 
Johns Hopkins University who spoke upon the ‘Origin and Evolution of the 
Higher One-celled Animals.’’ About 60 persons were present. 

The speaker referred to the three major groups of protozoa: SARCODINA, 
crawling forms, which reproduce by division in any direction; FLAGELLATA, 
forms which swim by means of whip-like flagella, and reproduce by longitudi- 
nal splitting; Cru1ata, forms which swim by hairlike cilia and reproduce by 
transverse division. He then discussed the origin and the evolution of the 
Ciliata, animals which are unique among living things in having in each cell, 
two nuclei, one enlarged and occupied with chemical activities, metabolism, 
the other unmodified and reserved for transmission of inheritance. The most 
primitive family of the Ciliata, the Opalinidae, are intermediate in many 
regards between the Flagellata and the Ciliata and show how the latter were 
derived from the former. Details were described which showed the change 
of the uninucleate Flagellata through temporarily binucleated Opalinidae 
into permanently binucleated higher Ciliata whose two nuclei evolved into 
one large metabolic nucleus and one unmodified genetic nucleus. 

The adoption of a parasitic habit caused the Opalinidae rapidly to become 
adapted to this peculiar life, their adaptation becoming complete during a 
single geologic period—the Triassic. Many species have persisted almost or 
wholly unmodified from that time. Rapid initial modification, after adapting 
parasitism, and slow subsequent change are quite generally characteristic of 
the evolution. Such subsequent evolution as has occurred in the family has 
been due to factors of evolution within the organism rather than in the en- 
vironment i.e. not to natural selection. This is definitely shown by the 
‘“‘natiern of occurrence’ of the several characters of the family among the 
branches of the ancestral tree, which is a definitely established tree and not an 
hypothetical one. Orthogenesis is then more than an hypothesis, it is a fact. 

The value of concomitant study of hosts and parasites in problems of 
geographical distribution and some of their corollaries was briefly illustrased. 
(Author’s abstract.) 

CHARLES THoMm, Recording Gea 


BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


742ND MEETING 


The 742nd meeting of the Biological Society was held in the new assembly 
hall of the Cosmos Club January 11, 1930, at 8.10 p. m., with President 
Wetmore in the chair and 65 persons present. ‘The mintues of the preceding 
meeting were read and approved. 

The President announced the reappointment of Dr. T. 8S. PALMER as 
Chairman of the Board of Trustees of Permanent Funds, to serve through 
1930. 

The President read the following resolution adopted by the Council com- 
mending the work of C. DAvIES SHERBORN: 


Auaust 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 347 


Wuereas, Coaries Davies SuHersorn, through his bibliographical researches, has 
made contributions of such outstanding importance in the field of zoology, 

AND WHEREAS, he has by continued and painstaking endeavor placed in the hands of 
his fellow workers in the ‘‘Index Animalium”’ an instrument of great usefulness, 

AnD WHEREAS, he has made other notable contributions such as a “Bibliography of 
the Foraminifera” and an “‘Index to the Genera and Species of the Foraminifera’’ and a 
“Catalogue of British Fossil Vertebrata,’’ and other similar works, 

Therefore Be it Resolved, that the Biological Society of Washington extends to 
Cuartes Davies SHERBORN its appreciation and recognition of the service he has 
rendered to his fellow-workers in science. 


A. WETMORE stated that three hunters’ skins of the giant panda had 
recently been received at the National Museum. 

F. C. LINcOoLN reported an unusual migration of waterfowl during the past 
autumn and winter. Ducks banded in autumn in North Dakota and Louisiana 
have spread east, in several cases reaching the Atlantic coast. 

P. B. JoHnson stated that in the newly born hippopotamus the hairs on 
the upper lip are single in the follicles, but in the adult they are in clusters. 

W. H. Ricu: Alaska salmon investigations ——The five Alaskan species of 
salmon all belong to the genus Onchorynchus and are known as the pink, chum, 
silver, king, and red salmon. All are anadromous and return to spawn to the 
same stream in which they were hatched and spent the early part of their 
lives. All die after the first spawning. The young stay in fresh water for 
varying lengths of time depending on the species and on the locality. Some 
migrate seaward as soon as they are able to swim, others remain in fresh 
water for as much as five years. The length of time spent in the ocean is also 
variable, from one-half to five years. Migrations in the ocean have been 
studied by means of experiments in which metal tags were attached to adult 
fish and a reward offered for the return of the tags together with data as to 
when and where the tags were found. Such experiments have shown that the 
fish caught at the end of the Alaskan Peninsula had their origin in Bristol Bay. 

One of the important lines of investigation has had to do with the study 
in certain selected streams of the production of adult fish from known breeding 
populations. Weirs have been constructed across these streams and the 
number of spawning fish passing up the river is accurately determined. In 
later years the number of fish derived from the spawning of these fish can be 
determined. These investigations ultimately will produce information that 
will enable the spawning populations to be regulated so as to maintain the runs 
at the point of highest productivity. On the basis of knowledge of the spawn- 
ing escapements as secured by weirs in some streams and by careful observa- 
tions of the fish on the spawning grounds in other streams it has been possible 
to prophesy with considerable accuracy the size of the salmon runs for future 
seasons. (Author’s abstract.) 

O. E. Serre: Mackerel invesiigations (illustrated.)—Biostatistical investi- 
gations of the mackerel fishery have been pursued by the Bureau of Fisheries 
since 1925, the principal object being to determine the causes for fluctuations 
in the catch. These fluctuations are very severe, the catch ranging from 
120,000,000 pounds in some years to as low as 4,000,000 pounds in others. 

From an analysis of length measurements of more than 100,000 mackerel 
from all American fishing localities during five years, it has been possible to 
determine that the rate of growth is very rapid during the first two years, an 
average length of 33 cm. being attained at the end of the second season. 
Thereafter, growth is less pronounced, eight year old mackerel being on the 
average about 44 em. long. The outstanding phenomenon in the mackerel 


348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


fishery is the unequal success of various year broods surviving to commercial 
size. The 1923 brood furnished the bulk of mackerel in the catch for the 
years 1925-28. Other broods, particularly those of 1921 and 1927, furnished 
very few mackerel, while 1922, 1924, 1925, and 1926 accounted for almost 
none. In 1929, a new brood resulting from the 1928 spawning season entered 
the commercial catch in such numbers that for the first time since 1925, the 
1923 mackerel were overshadowed by another brood. 

This fully explains the extraordinary fluctuations. When a large brood 
enters the fishery, it furnishes good catches for a period of five years; but un- 
less another large brood appears to augment the catch within that period, 
the fishery declines to very low levels. 

The cause of unequal increments to the commercial fishery from year to 
year is excessive mortality in early stages, the critical period probably lying . 
somewhere between the hatching of the larvae and the attainment of com- 
mercial size. In our present program, particular attention is being given to 
the observation of oceanographic conditions in relation to the survival of 
young mackerel in order that the causes of excessive mortality of young stages 
may be ascertained. (Author’s abstract.) 

Eimer Hiaains: Great Lakes investigations (illustrated).—The fisheries of 
the Great Lakes depend upon arich and varied fauna of some 163 species of 
fish; half of this number are edible. The yield of the commerical fisheries 
for the past 50 years has been about 100,000,000 pounds annually, of which 
United States fishermen take 81,000,000 pounds. The yield for the past 
7 years compared with the previous 7-year period has declined 16%, and many 
species are seriously depleted. In Lake Erie, the whitefish has declined 82%, 
and the cisco 94% since 1885 and 1890, respectively. 

Many biological, limnological, and fisheries investigations of the Great 
Lakes have been conducted since 1850. Some have led to specific reeommen- 
dations for regulation of the fishery, but because of divided authority of the 
eight States and a Canadian province over these waters, no uniform action 
has been taken. In the summer of 1928, the Bureau of Fisheries organized 
a cooperative limnological and fisheries investigation of Lake Erie, where 
fishery problems are most acute. State and private institutions in New York, 
Ohio, and Ontario codperated, and the study was continued during 1929. 
Results indicate that pollution is a negligible factor in limiting the supply of 
fishes; that the plankton and bottom food supply is abundant; but that ther- 
mal conditions, which were carefully studied, may have direct influence upon 
the availability of fish. - This is illustrated by the case of the cisco, which is 
a cold-water-loving fish, depending upon a food organism likewise limited to 
cold water. The configuration of the bottom together with variations in the 
height of the thermocline seem to have concentrated the entire stock of 
-ciscoes in a small area in 1924, when enormous catches were made, so great, 
in fact, that the fishery has been practically destroyed. The commercial 
yield fell from 32,200,000 pounds in 1924 to 5,500,006 pounds in 1925, and 
remained low until the present time. 

In addition to such conditions, wasteful methods of fishing appear to be an 
important factor in overfishing. The Bureau’s investigators have therefore 
undertaken extensive experiments to determine the effect on the fish stock of 
various sizes of mesh in the nets. Experimental nets alternated with com- 
mercial nets have been operated throughout the entire fishing seasons in 
various parts of the lake in an effort to devise gear that is most efficient from 
a commercial standpoint as well as least destructive to immature fish. Defi- 


Aucust 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 349 


nite recommendations for regulations of gear and for a more complete system 
of fishery statistics useful to the biologists have been offered and have been 
adopted by most of the States bordering the Great Lakes. (Author’s abstract). 


743D MEETING 


~The 743d meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club 
January 25, 1930, at 8.10 p. m., with President WrTmor:E in the chair and 
80 persons present. New members elected: E. A. Moran, 8. F. STANLEY. 

A. A. Doouirre exhibited two Jars which have been hermetically sealed 
for five years. The jars are not absolutely tight but leak very slightly when 
placed in water. One was originally filled with air, one with COz, and in each 
a handful of ordinary yard soil with some nasturtium seeds was placed. A 
fern is now growing in each Jar as well as various algae. 

The regular programme was as follows: 

E. N. Munwns: Some forestry observations in Europe (allustrated).—The 
speaker described silvicultural conditions in Europe and contrasted-them with 
conditions in this country, for the most part to the disadvantage of the latter. 

P. N. MartTInpDALgE, ranger, Yellowstone National Park: Intimate habits of 
wild animals.—The speaker described the life of rangers in the Yellowstone 
National Park and gave an account of some of the larger mammals, particu- 
larly the bears. 


744TH MEETING 


The 744th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club 
February 8, 1930, at 8 p. m., with President Wermorse in the chair and 120 
persons present. New members elected: Henry O’Matury, J. E. 
SHILLINGER. 

F. THone exhibited photographs of the skull of Sinanthropus pekinensis 
and mentioned the views of several anthropologists regarding it. 

P. B. JoHNSON reported, with reference to his communication on January 
11, that the death of an adult hippopotamus at the Zoological Park had 
made possible further observations. He finds that all the hairs of each cluster _ 
of hairs on the lip and tail of the adult are united at base within the skin. 

The regular program was as follows: 

H. M. Ausricut: Some biological problems in National Park administration 
(zllustrated).—The speaker discussed some of the outstanding problems in the 
administration of National Parks, such as the deer problem in various parks 
due to overpopulation; the over-familiarity of bears in Yellowstone and 
Yosemite Parks, with consequent damage to property and also to tourists; 
the destructiveness of white pelicans to fish in Yellowstone; the predatory 
animal problem, which is solved by practically exterminating them in the 
smaller parks and leaving them almost alone in the larger parks; the over- 
population of buffalo in Yellowstone; and the protection of nesting trumpeter 
swans. He exhibited moving pictures of black and grizzly bears and of 
woodchucks, elk, and other mammals. In conclusion he introduced A. P. 
Hare, a former ranger, who gave an amusing account of his experiences with 
bears and tourists. 


745TH MEETING 


The 745th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club 
on February 22, 1930, at 8.15 p. m., with President Wetmore in the chair 
and 50 persons present. New member elected: M. C. JAMES. 


350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


T. S. Patmer contrasted the knowledge of biology 200 years ago and now. 
He also mentioned that quail have been fed by police in five precincts during 
the recent heavy snow, the grain being paid for by the Audubon Society. 
The count of the police shows 727 birds. At the time of the heavy storm 
in 1922 about 1200 were reported. 

A. Wetmore reported that he and F. C. Lincoin had found flocks of ducks 
—Oldsquaw, Goldeneye, and others—at Scotland Beach, Maryland, that day, 
in which the birds were evidently mated. 

F. C. Lrycoin reported that E. A. McILHENNY, in cooperation with the 
Biological Survey, had this winter shipped ducks captured and banded in 
Louisiana to various parts of the country to be released. Returns from these 
banded birds are expected to throw important light on their migrations. 

The regular program was as follows: 

A. H. WinBe: Some observations in tncreasing pond productivity—The 
object of the pond-cultural work at the Fairport (Iowa) station is to raise 
bass and other game fish to fingerling size for distribution. The general 
practice up to now has been to distribute the fish asfry. The work at Fairport 
is done in dirt ponds ranging in size from less than 0.1 to 3.5 acres. The 
water supply is pumped from the Mississippi River. The ponds are so 
constructed that they can be drained and all fish recovered. The young fry 
when 15 to 20 mm. in length are trapped and transferred to nursery ponds. 
This is done because bass are very cannibalistic. The production of fish 
is increased not by resorting to artificial feeding, but by increasing the natural 
food supply. This is done through the use of forage fish and fertilizers. 
The minnows Notemigonus crysoleucas (golden shiner) and Pimephales pro- 
melas (blackhead minnow), because of their slender bodies, their early ma- 
turity, and prolonged spawning periods, are particularly well suited for 
forage. The fertilizers used are sheep manure, soybean meal, shrimp bran, 
and superphosphate. That fertilizers have a beneficial effect is shown by the 
increased production of algae, microcrustacea, and fish. (Author’s abstract.) 

F. A. Warren: Along the trails of Mount Rainier (illustrated)—The 
speaker, on the basis of several seasons’ work, described some of the charac- 
teristic plants and animals and illustrated them by lantern slides, as well as 
the general features of the mountain. 

C. D. Marsu: The poisonous laurel (illustrated) —Mountain laurel (Kal- 
mia laiifolia) and sheep laurel (Kalmia angustifolia) are among the most 
important poisonous plants of the eastern United States. 

Mountain laurel was recognized as poisonous as early as 1743, and sheep 
laurel in 1749. One of the best descriptions of mountain laurel and its 
effects was published by Kalmin1771. The first important contribution of 
experimental work was by Thomas in 1802. Crawford in 1908 published the 
only other serious contribution with experimental data. The losses of live- 
stock have been of sheep and cattle, but it has been shown that goats, monkeys, 
and probably horses may be poisoned. They may also affect man. The 
symptoms are the same with both plants and consist mainly of salivation, 
pronounced nausea, irregular respiration, and weakness, which may result 
in complete prostration. The toxic and lethal dosage have been studied with 
both plants, and it has been shown that while the sheep laurel is distinctly 
more poisonous than the mountain laurel, animals poisoned by the sheep 
laurel are not as likely to die as those poisoned by the mountain laurel. 
Both of these plants are more poisonous to sheep and goats than to cattle. 
Apparently birds are not easily affected by them. 


August 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY ool 


From the literature on the subject, it appears that the flesh of animals 
feeding upon these laurels may become poisoned. It has also been shown 
that when bees collect honey from these laurels, the honey becomes poisonous. 
Experimental work has shown quite clearly that linseed oil is effective in 
reducing the harmful effects of the plants. (Author’s abstract.) 


746TH MEETING 


The 746th meeting was held March 8, 1930, at 8.15 p.m. in the new assem- 
bly hall of the Cosmos Club, with Vice-President JACKSON in the chair and 
72 persons present. New member elected: F. C. FRIESNER. 

C. W. Stites announced that the meeting of the International Zoolegical 
Congress will be held at Padua this year on September 4-11. 

S. F. BLaxe mentioned the observation of about 100 gulls, apparently 
Herring Gulls, on the Washington Airport field that morning after a rain the 
night before. 

The regular program was as follows: 

H.S. Pretsers: External parasites of birds (allusirated).—External parasites 
are commonly found on most wild birds. If we remember that they must 
all exist at the expense of their host it is reasonable to believe they must have 
a very harmful and noticeable effect on their host. This opens many interest- 
ing fields of study and raises many questions in which the bird bander, 
especially, should be interested. Banders may find that birds repeating 
very often at traps or feeding stations are parasitized, weakened and unable 
to seek their own food. I believe ectoparasites have a definite effect on the 
behavior of the birds, probably causing them to have a somewhat shorter 
migration route, shorter life, smaller size and duller plumage; to sing less; 
and perhaps to have a lower and more variable body temperature than the 
birds not infested. 

All groups of ectoparasites are visible to the unaided eye and may be easily 
picked from their host with small forceps and placed in small vials of 70% 
alcohol for killing and preserving until being mounted on microscope slides 
for identification. 

The biting lice or Mallophaga are most commonly observed and are found 
on all species of birds. ‘They feed on parts of the feathers and scales of the 
skin and cause much irritation by their sharp claws. Feather mites are the 
most abundant parasites but are easily overlooked due to their small size. 
Ticks are often found on ground-frequenting birds and cause a great loss of 
vitality by sucking the blood of the host. The stick-tight flea is often found 
in masses on the head of birds, especially in southern United States. The 
bird flies (Hippoboscidae) are found principally on young birds. The ecto- 
parasites which feed on blood probably have more harmful effect on the birds 
than the lice. It is hoped that bird banders will observe these parasites and 
their effect on the host, thus aiding the entomologist in his study of their 
life history, host relationships, abundance and distribution. (Author’s 
abstract.) 

Paut Bartscu: Collecting in the Caribbean Islands (illustrated).—The 
speaker gave an account of his explorations in the West Indies last summer in 
search of land molluscs on a Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholarship. 
Nearly all the large and small islands of the West Indies and off the coast of 
Venezuela were visited and extensive collections obtained. 


302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


747TH MEETING 


The 747th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club 
March 22, 1930, at 8.10 p. m., with President Wermore in the chair and 130 
persons present. New member elected: C. V. Morton. 

A letter was read from C. T. REGAN thanking the Society on behalf of the 
Trustees of the British Museum for its resolution expressing appreciation of 
the bibliographical work of C. D. SHERBORN. 

The regular program was as follows: 

VERNON Barter: Some biological problems of the Grand Canyon region 
(illustrated). —The speaker spoke of a few of the many biological problems of 
the Grand Canyon country, with lantern slide illustrations and moving pic- 
tures of the Kaibab deer herd, the tufted-eared Abert squirrel, white-tailed 
Kaibab squirrel, and the porcupines. A colored slide of life zones across a 
section of the Grand Canyon showed the climatic barrier between the many 
distinct species of mammals only 13 miles apart on the two sides of the canyon. 

Pictures were shown of the Supai Indians living in the bottom of Havisu 
Canyon in much the primitive style of the ancient cliff-dwellers of the Grand 
Canyon and possibly their direct descendents. 

The buffalo herd in Houserock Valley, the introduced antelope herd in the 
Grand Canyon, the mountain sheep along the canyon walls, and the Rocky 
Mountain mule deer on the Kaibab Plateau were shown in colored lantern 
slides and their present status discussed. The present system of controlling 
the overabundance of mule deer by carefully supervised hunting on the edges 
of their winter range was highly commended and the perpetuation of this 
splendid deer herd considered assured through the best system of game 
management ever put into practice in this country. The control of preda- 
tory mammals, the mountain lions, bobcats, and coyotes, was shown to be 
absolutely essential to maintaining the game animals as well as the protection 
of livestock interests of the region. With our present knowledge of the habits 
of both the predatory and game animals it is now possible to regulate the 
abundance of any species of larger mammals as seems most desirable. (Au- 
thor’s abstract.) 

KE. P. Kiuurp: Over the Peruvian Andes and down the Amazon for plants 
(illustrated) —An expedition was sent by the Smithsonian Institution to 
eastern Peru to make general botanical collections and to study especially 
plants used as fish poisons, the party consisting of A. C. Smit, W. J. DENNIs, 
and the speaker. Brief stops were made in the mountains at Rio Blanco, 
Tarma, Huancayo, and Huanta, but the main work was carried on in the 
little-known montafia region of eastern and northeastern Peru. This was 
first reached at Kimpitiriki, on the Apurimac River. After a month in the 
Chanchamayo Valley, the party proceeded over the Pichis trail and down the 
Pichis and Ucayali rivers to Iquitos, on the Amazon, in the extreme north- 
eastern corner of the country. Several weeks were spent along the Marafion 
and Huallaga rivers and at Yurimaguas. The expedition then went down 
the Amazon to Parad, making a stop at Mandos. 

Approximately 9200 numbers of plants were collected in two complete 
sets, for the National Museum and the New York Botanical Garden which 
codperated in the project. Extra material was obtained for study by 
specialists in certain plant groups. (Author’s abstract.) 


AuGusT 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY Bist. 


748TH MEETING 


The 748th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club at 
8.10 p. m. on April 5, 1930, with President Wrrmore in the chair and 95 
persons present. 

S. F. BLuakr mentioned that the grass on the large ant nests along the 
Maryland route to Great Falls has remained green through the winter, while 
the grass close by is dry and withered, and asked for an explanation from 
entomologists present. 

A. WETMORE discussed the limits of the Washington Region as set by 
different writers by the subject, and favored its extension, from the ornitho- 
logical point of view, to a circle 40 or even 50 miles in diameter. Discussed 
by V. Baruey, who also favored its extension from the point of view of mam- 
malogy; by C. H. Mrrriam, who showed from his own collecting experiences 
to what an extent the wild life of the region has been pushed back from the 
city within recent times; and by S. F. Buaxes, who felt that such an extension 
would bring in too many plants belonging to diverse associations. 

The regular program was as follows: 

P. G. Repineton: Alaska and some of her interesting inhabitants (illus- 
trated). 


749TH MEETING 


The 749th regular meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos 
Club April 19, 1930, at 8.10 p. m., with Vice-President StTiuEs in the chair 
and 55 persons present. New member elected: W. L. Brown. 

Dr. G. W. FIED stated that the discovery of oilin southern Louisiana, close 
to the large bird reservations on which migratory waterfowl congregate 
during the winter, has raised new problems in their protection. A bill will 
be brought up in Congress amending the Oil Pollution Act of 1924 by extend- 
ing its provisions to the Great Lakes and navigable inland waters (as well as 
to coastal waters), and putting its enforcement under the officials administer- 
ing the Migratory Bird Act. 

Dr. L. O. Howarp introduced Dr. Davin Mitumr, Government Entomol- 
ogist of New Zealand. 

The regular program was as follows: 

H. L. Westover: Plant exploration in Turkestan (allustrated).—The 
speaker gave an account of his travels through Russia and Turkestan in 
search of alfalfas resistant to the bacterial wilt (A planobacter insidiosum), a 
disease that has been very destructive in the best alfalfa growing districts 
of the Middle West in recent years. Arrangements for the trip were made 
previously with the Institute of Applied Botany at Leningrad and this Insti- 
tute permitted a member of their staff to act as interpreter for the expedition. 
Mr. WESTOVER was accompanied by W. E. WuirreHouss of the office of 
Foreign Plant Introduction. They entered Russia at Leningrad and after 
visiting scientific institutions there proceeded to Moscow, Kiev, Kharkov, 
Saratov, Samara, and thence to Tashkent. The Soviet Government is 
conducting extensive experiments in agriculture at these points and is 
spending considerable money in the construction of laboratories and in 
equipping them. Nearly two months were spent in Turkestan collecting 
alfalfa seed from all the important seed producing districts between the 
Chinese Boundary and Caspian Sea. In addition, seeds of pistache, wild 
plums, wild apricots, legumes, grasses and melons were secured. The melons 
of Turkestan are noted for their wonderful flavor and great variety. 


354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


The conditions among the natives of Turkestan are very primitive. The 
houses are constructed of mud and usually contain little or no furniture except 
rugs, which serve as chairs, beds, and covering forthe ground. The common . 
plow is a crooked stick with a metal point. The crops such as alfalfa and 
cereals are harvested with a sickle and are usually thrashed by beating with 
sticks or tramping with horses. Camels furnish the chief means of transporta- 
tion to the railroads. (Author’s abstract.) 

OsWALD SCHREINER: Biological science in the East Indies (illustrated).— 
The speaker described the organization of agricultural and medical investiga- 
tions in Java as observed by himself at the recent Pan-Pacific Congress. 


750TH MEETING 
51st ANNUAL MEETING 


The 750th regular and 51st annual meeting was held May 3, 1930, at 8.00 
p.m. in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club, with Vice-President 
JACKSON in the chair and 11 persons present. The minutes of the last annual 
meeting were read and approved. ‘The reports of the Recording Secretary, 
Corresponding Secretary, and Treasurer were read and ordered placed on file. 
The election then took place, as follows: 

President, A. WETMORE; Vice-Presidents, C. E. CHampuiss, H. H. T. 
Jackson, C. W. Stites, T. E. SNypER; Recording Secretary, S. F. BuAKE; 
Corresponding Secretary, W. H. Wuite; Treasurer, F. C. Lincoun; Members of 
Councal, H. C. FULLER, W. R. Maxon, A. A. Doouitrue, I. Horrman, E. P. 
WALKER. 

S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary. 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
462ND MEETING (continued from page 243) 


J. B. Mertiz, Jr.: Mountain building in Alaska.—Reconnaissance geologic 
surveys in Alaska have progressed to the point where the general character, 
distribution and sequence of sedimentation and vulcanism are now known. 
This record affords an effective means for deciphering the history of moun- 
tain building, although the mechanics of mountain making, for lack of ade- 
quate structural data, are as yet only imperfectly understood. 

Orogenically, the highlands of Alaska are classified into five structural 
provinces :—first, the southern coastal ranges; second, the Alaska Range; 
third, the highland areas of central Alaska; fourth, the Kuskokwim highland, 
of southwestern Alaska; and fifth, the Brooks Range, of northern Alaska. 
Genetically, the mountains of southeastern Alaska are related to the first 
two groups of highlands. 

By provinces, the orogenic history is summarized as follows :— 


A. SOUTHERN COASTAL RANGES. 


1. Progressive submergence during Lower Jurassic, accompanied by great 
outpourings of basic lavas. 

2. Partial uplift and deformation at end of Lower Jurassic, followed by re- 
submergence. 

3. Progressive submergence throughout Middle and Upper Jurassic, 
accompanied by hinge-line deformation along northern coastal margin, by 
granitic intrusions and by deformation of deeply buried Jurassic sediments. 


\ 


AuGusT 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 355 


4. Epeirogenic uplift at end of Jurassic and creation of highland area by 
differential eorsion. 

5. Partial submergence in late Lower or early Upper Cretaceous, accom- 
panied by differential deformation of adjoining land areas, and possibly by 
injection of granitic rocks. 

6. Epeirogenic uplift in early Eocene, followed by formation of coal meas- 
ures. 

7. Deformation of coal measures in late Oligocene followed by long interval 
of erosion in Miocene. 

8. Regional uplift and mountain building in Pliocene, accompanied by basic 
lava flows. 


B. ALASKA RANGE. 


1. Land mass of moderate relief from end of Triassic to some time in Lower 
Cretaceous. 

2. Partial submergence in late Lower or early Upper Cretaceous, accom- 
panied by differential deformation of adjoining land areas. Some granitic 
rocks possibly injected at this time. 

3. Uplift and major mountain building in early Eocene, accompanied by 
formation of Cantwell formation, and by acidic, intermediate, and basic lava 
flows. Granitic rocks probably injected at depth. 

4. Slow differential uplift in late Eocene, accompanied by deformation of 
Cantwell formation and deposition of coal measures. 

5. Deformation of coal measures in late Oligocene, followed by long interval 
of erosion in Miocene. 

6. Regional uplift in Pliocene, accompanied by basic lava flows, and fol- 
lowed by differential uplift and formation of Nenana gravels. 

7. Further deformation in Quaternary. 


C. CENTRAL ALASKA. 


1. Land area of moderate relief from end of Triassic to beginning of the 
Cretaceous. 

2. Submergence in Lower Cretaceous, followed by elevation and mountain 
building in mid-Cretaceous, and injection of granitic rocks. 

3. Submergence in Upper Cretaceous, followed by epeirogenic uplift in 
Eocene, and formation of coal measures. 

4. Late Oligocene deformation and mountain building, accompanied by 
injection of monzonitic intrusives. 

5. Continuous erosion in Miocene and early Pliocene. 

6. Epeirogenic uplift in late Pliocene. 


D. KUSKOKWIM HIGHLAND. 


1. Negative element from Triassic to Tertiary. 

2. Regional uplift in Eocene, followed by deposition of coal measures. 
Mountain making in Aleutian Range. 

3. Mountain building in late Oligocene, accompanied by injection of mon- 
zonitic intrusives, and a period of cinnabar metallization. 

4. Continuous erosion in Miocene and early Pliocene. 

5. Epeirogenic uplift in late Pliocene. 


306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 14 


E. BROOKS RANGE. 


1. Either mountain building at end of Jurassic, or 

2. Hinge-line deformation during deposition of 10,000 feet of Lower 
Cretaceous sediments. 

3. Mid-Cretaceous mountain building, accompanied by injection of grani- 
tic rocks. 

4. One or two periods of Tertiary uplift and deformation. 

5. Quaternary regional uplift. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Capps, RuBry and MrErtTIn. 


463RD MEETING. 


The 463rd meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the 
Cosmos Club, March 26, 1930, President G. R. MANSFIELD presiding. 

Regular program: N. L. Bowrn: Impressions of the Bushveld Complex. 
Discussed by Messrs. SAMPSON, BOWEN, LOVERING, and G. R. MANSFIELD. 

A. C. Bevan: The Front Range northeast of Yellowstone Park. Discussed 
by Messrs. Sears, BEvAN, RuBry, LovVERING, HEwert, RESSER and WErR- 
NER. 

Marcus I. Goupman: Types of silicification in the Paleozoic of Virginia. 
The talk dealt with the results of the laboratory study of a series of silicified 
specimens collected by Mr. CHarues Burts along the contact of the Cambrian 
with the Ozarkian or Canadian Jonesboro limestone in Virginia. One type 
was a banded limonitie rock consisting of rather idiomorphic large quartz 
crystals cutting across the banding.! This rock resembles Storz’s ‘‘rosewood 
quartzite.’’? Basal sections of these quartz crystals showed no optie figure, 
and the speaker suggested that this might be due to a concealed fibrous strue- 
ture in them. 

Another type consisted of smaller quartz crystals cutting across the struc- 
ture of small yellow filamentous and spherular bodies which Dr. Davin WHITE 
believes are filaments and spores of some low form of plant, the whole rock 
having many resemblances to oil shales. Another type, very vesicular, 
gray, containing much reddish ferruginous material, is believed to be silicified 
rock underlying the contact. Some of its characters suggest the possibility 
of its formation from a gel. 

A fourth type, which has the appearance of a slightly pinkish quartzite, 
shows under the microscope a very irregular interlocking mosaic of quartz 
crystals with undulatory extinction. This is believed to be a silicified cal- 
careous rock from directly below the contact. 

The character of the quartz in the second and third types was discussed. 
The crystals show straight, parallel lines of growth making angles with each 
other suggesting crystal structure, and many of them have a brush-like rad- 
iating extinction, especially in their outer parts. The difficulty of explaining 
the growth lines by formation from a colloid was pointed out. 

The second type with plant-like bodies was interpreted as a bog iron deposit 
formed on a flat, relatively undrained surface between Cambrian and Ozark- 
ian or Canadian; the other types as the result of the accumulation of iron and 
silica on or below this old surface. (Awthor’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Butts, Waite, FERGUSON, GOLDMAN, FosHaG, 
TUNELL and BuRCHARD. 

C. H. Dang, Secretary 


1 Cf. Oder, Amer. Mineralogist, 14: 382, 1929. 
2 Storz, Sekunddre authigene Kieselsdure, etc. Borntraeger, 1928, p. 91. 











ORIGINAL PaPErs — Re 


Evolution.—The mechanism of organic evolution. CHARLES | B. D. 
Paleontology.—Remarks on Dr. George G. Simpson’s work on the 
paleontology of Florida. Otiver P, Hay..............00...00e 


PROCEEDINGS Ney 


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Vou. 20 SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 No. 15 


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AA SONTAN Foe 


JOURNAL ®*: 


OF THE ; o st tar Pe ret | ak 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
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BOARD OF EDITORS 


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BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


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ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


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JOURNAL 


. OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 No. 15 


MATHEMATICS.—The symmetry of the autocatalytic curve.' HARRY 
W. Tirus, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated by > 
JOHN R. Mouuer.) 


It is now more than twenty years ago that Robertson started 
developing his autocatalytic theory of growth. His extensive in- 
vestigations in this field, stopped only by his very untimely death, 
have been a direct stimulus to a large number of workers in biology 
and chemistry. At least in part, because of the acceleration he gave 
to the study of growth, the amount of work done in this field increased 
enormously during the last ten or fifteen years. As more and more 
work was done, it became apparent that the symmetric growth curve 
was the exception rather than the rule and modifications of the original 
autocatalytic equation, developed from different points of view? 
were proposed. Along with these proposed modifications some in- 
correct statements regarding the properties of the modified equations 
crept into the literature. It is the purpose of this paper to call atten- 
tion to these statements and to demonstrate, mathematically, that 
they are incorrect. 

A rather general form of the autocatalytic equation‘ is 


x +b 








In i UA a] by) al i sean iety inner eee (1) 
JB 2s 58 

un es a gt a a (1") 
Gx 


1 Received June 28, 1930. 
* Ropertson, T. B. Journ. Gen. Physiol. 8: 463. 1926; 12: 329. 1929. 
$ Crozier, W. J. Journ. Gen. Physiol. 10: 53. 1926. 
4 The more general form is: 
x tb 





In =wKCA = athe th), 


307 


358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 15 


When b = 0, we have 


x 


may eaa = KA(t = Hii )icis vt e s ow 2 en 


which is the form originally used by Robertson® and later by Brody* 
and others for describing the phenomenon of growth. More recently 
equation (1’) has been used by Robertson,? Crozier,? and others for 
the same purpose.’ 

All possible modifications of the general equation, (1), are symmetric 
about the point of inflection in the sense that either branch of its 
eurve may be rotated about the point of inflection until it exactly 
coincides with the other branch. For all positive values of t,, the 
point of inflection occurs to the right of the x-axis (here, the axis of 
ordinates) and when t, = 0, it occurs on the x-axis; it occurs above the 
t-axis (here, the axis of abscissas) when b <A, below when b>A, and 
at the origin when b = A andt,=0. (See Fig. 1.) 

Robertson, on several occasions,” has referred to the curve of equa- 
tion (1’) as being asymmetric in type. In the summary of his paper 
on the growth of normal white mice (1926) he says, 


‘3. The first and most extensive autocatalytic process is asymmetrical, being defined 
by an equation of the type: 





Sern K(t — ti)” 


] = 
oe ae 


the sign preceding b being always the same in both terms in which b occurs. By the 
proper selection of the magnitude and sign of b and ti, the point of inflection may be 
made to occur in any one of the four quadrants, or at the origin. 

5 ROBERTSON, T. B. The chemical bases of growth and senescence. 1923. 

6 Bropy, S. Journ. Gen. Physiol. 3: 765. 1921; Bropy, S., and Ragspats, A. C. 
Journ. Gen. Physiol. 3: 623. 1921. 

7 That the equations used by Robertson and Crozier are essentially the same, al- 
though the methods of developing them are different, is clear from the following: 

If the differential form of Crozier’s equation, 


d 
= = (Ki + Kox) (A — x) 
be written: 
dx Ne Ky, am Ki 
ie Ko eG +x) (A — x) = Ke (« ey 2), 


the differential form of Robertson’s equation, 
dx 


qe EF &tH A», 


K 
may be obtained from it by substituting k for K2 and b for = 


2 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 TITUS: SYMMETRY OF AUTOCATALYTIC CURVE 309 


And in a more recent paper, on sequence of growth cycles (1929), he 
Says, 


“Tt (equation (1’)) also has the effect of rendering the cycle on either side of the 
moment of maximum growth velocity, unequal in slope and amplitude.”’ 


Snell,® in a foot-note to his paper on defects in the theory that 
growth rate is controlled by an autocatalytic process, says, 


“Tn a later paper (Robertson, 1926) a different equation is used to permit a slightly 
asymmetrical curve, but it does not remedy this defect, or any of the other defects here 
discussed.”’ . 


in %2 =«(t-t) 
ae = k(t-t,) 


in X2 =x (t-t) 





Be POINTS OF — 
INFLECT/ON—~ 


| 
S 
| oh lvl 
| 
| 





Fig. 1—Graphs of the autocatalytic equation, 
x + 8B 
In = k(t — ti). 
fe 3K ( ’ 
N.B. The passing of one of the plotted curves through the origin is merely accidental; 
by proper selection of the magnitude of b, the curve may be made to cut the axis of 
ordinates above, or below, the origin. 





As a matter of fact, are the two halves of the cycle on either side of 
the moment of maximum growth velocity unequal in slope and ampli- 
tude? Does equation (1’), or (1), define an asymmetric curve? A 
negative answer must be made. 


§SneuL, G. D. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 15: 274. 1929. 


360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 15 


Let us consider the differential form of equation (1), 1.e., 


dx 


a +b) A — ») kate 5 Aeon (3) 

If we let yt ee eg (4) 

then dx = dx’ ea Ra eon! ea (5) 
and on substituting (4) and (5) in (3) we get 

= KG) (A +b) ede (6) 


Thus, by a simple linear transformation, we may obtain a differential 
equation which is precisely of the same type as the differential form 
of equation (2), that is, it is of the same type as 


dx it 
oF ou K(x) (A =3x) Sees...) (7) 


Since the curve of equation (2) is symmetric, it follows that the curve 
of equation (1) is also symmetric and that the two halves of the cycle 
on either side of the moment of maximum growth velocity are not 
unequal in slope and amplitude. 

That the curve of equation (1), or (1’), is symmetric may be demon- 
strated, in another manner, as follows: 

In the case of the equation, 


in 2+? kt t) Se a (1") 





it may be shown readily that the point of inflection is at 
| (ts) G ; “Ail Now, if equal increments of abscissa (t) to the 
right and to the left of t, define values of x which are equidistant from 
the ordinate a alll 








) the curve is symmetric about the point of in- 


flection. Such is the case, for when 


t=. t on ee a 
wets ae 

ee 9 

x 1 OR te (9) 


°n being any real number. 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 TITUS: SYMMETRY OF AUTOCATALYTIC CURVE ob61 


and when (ee ria da 8k: ea pee cP aE (10) 
Se cee cee 11 
1 ue was b) ( ) 


and the distance between the ordinates of the curve at 


form GS] ace [os] 








Aes eee be a Pa GAu = i yer ye lb) (a) 
ree, 1 oF ° eer eae rss eae ha 
and the distance between the ordinates of the curve at 
nk 
pean) paren [om | 
A ss | Ae See CAM SEE (ena) 
eet nk Ie Tih pea Conk ne eel) 
2 1+e 2 (1 + &) 


The quantities (a) and (8) are identical and thus it has been demon- 
strated that the curve is symmetric, since equal increments, to the 
right and to the left of t:, define values of x which are equidistant from 


the ordinate (* A .) 


By suitable algebraic treatment we may also demonstrate, inde- 
pendently of the above, that the slope of the two branches of the curve 


A —b a m)" and 








is the same. If we substitute the ordinates ( 


oe — m) in the equation for the slope of the curve defined by 


equation (1), that is, in 











dx 
— b aoe Kee cat Ranaee Cees 12 
a -~ + Cr) (12) 
we get, in the first case: 
Om of pede A—b A —b 
ae Se ls le | etek A es eee cs 
dt aut 2 +m +b)( neato m) 
ie k (A) — m*| (oy 
nay 5 Rake aks Catia BUS 7 


10m being any real number. 


362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 15 


and in the second case: 


ge 2 ok ee ee 


Ge ea 
eee eee ] 
- > (( ; TA Vk, ogc ote (6) 


The expressions (vy) and (6) are identical and thus it has been shown 
that the slope of the curve at any two points, which are equidistant 
from the point of inflection, is the same; and hence the slope of. the 
two branches of the curve is the same. 

















SUMMARY 
Several incorrect statements regarding the curve defined by the 
autocatalytic equation, 


x +b x +b 
ae (A z 
ae (A + b) (t t:),0r In 7 





In 





=k (t — t) 


have been made in the literature. These statements are to the effect 
that: 
(1) the curve described by the above equations is asymmetric, and 
(2) the two halves of the curve have unequal slopes. 
It has been demonstrated in this paper that these statements are 
incorrect. 


MICROBIOLOGY .—Myzxzamoebae in soil and decomposing crop 
residues.|. CHARLES THOM and KENNETH B. Raper, Bureau of 
Chemistry and Soils. 


Amoebae are regularly observed and reported by students of soil 
organisms. Sandon in his book on Soil Protozoa and Waksman in his 
“Principles” reviewed the information available to 1927. Sandon 
supplemented the literature by summarizing the studies made at the 
Rothamsted Station. He made no reference to the amoeboid phase 
of the Myxomycetes and the Acrasieae as members of the soil popula- 
tion with characters sufficiently suggestive of protozoa to open the 
possibility of confusion. Brierley (1928 p. 16) listed five genera of 
Myxomycetes as occurring in soil with ‘“‘evidence that they may live 
vegetatively in this habitat.’”’ Waksman in his ‘‘Principles’’, p. 236 
refers to the Myxomycetes as including species which are plant para- 


1 Received June 17, 1930. 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 THOM AND RAPER: MYXAMOEBAE IN SOIL 363 


sites with the comment that they appear able to maintain themselves 
independently in the soil. Krzemieniewski reported that by proper 
culture methods many Myxomycetes may be obtained in culture from 
the soil. Harper, following Krzemieniewski’s method, isolated Poly- 
sphondylium from soil collected in New York City parks. The ex- 
tensive cultural studies reported by Olive and others have been prima- 
rily concerned with obtaining and identifying the fruiting bodies of 
this group of organisms. Very little has been reported to indicate 
the distribution and significance of the amoeboid phase or even the 
plasmodium phase of these organisms in the soil or in the decaying 
vegetation of the meadow or the cultivated field. We were surprised, 
therefore, to encounter these organisms in great numbers in the 
course of studies begun for entirely other purposes. 

In December 1929, samples of decaying grasses and weeds were 
collected in an experimental field on the Arlington Farm of the United 
States Department of Agriculture. When brought to the laboratory, 
selected leaves and stems were cut into convenient lengths and dropped 
upon the surface of solidified mannite agar in petri dishes to permit 
certain saprophytic organisms present to develop. The nutrient 
medium used was free from nitrogen or nearly so, hence considered 
only as furnishing a-moist substratum to favor the further develop- 
ment of organisms already present upon the grass. 

Within a week several myxomycete plasmodia developed and 
moved about upon the agar in these plates. Thousands of amoebae or 
myxamoebae also spread upon the agar from pieces of decaying grasses 
and weeds. Masses of bacteria and mold mycelium covered and 
spread outward from every piece of decaying vegetation. Since we 
could find no record of observations of Myxomycetes under such 
conditions several series of such cultures were made to extend our 
knowledge of the presence and abundance of these forms under winter 
conditions in Washington and vicinity. 

The first of these samples consisted of a few leaves of crab grass 
collected on February 6th from a roadside. Prior to this, the grass 
had been covered by snow for several days, and was quite wet when 
brought to the laboratory. The leaves were cut into convenient 
lengths and placed upon mannite agar in petri dishes and the dishes 
were held at room temperature. In the course of a few days, plas- 
modia were observed in all the plates. Large “‘amoebae”’ and small 
amoeboid cells, possibly myxamoebae, were present in considerable 
numbers; the latter were particularly numerous. Using a small 
sterile pipet, a part of one of the plasmodia was transferred on Febru- 


364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 15 


ary 12 toa fresh mannite agar plate. To this culture was added from 
time to time a suspension of dead bacteria belonging to the B. aerogenes 
group. The plasmodium grew slowly but consistently until March 
8th when it was transferred to hay infusion agar medium. By fre- 
quent transfers it is still in actively growing condition on this medium 
after four months. After the snow melted, samples of decaying grass 
were again collected from the field on February 8th. These samples 
were plated and incubated as before, and again in the course of a 
week plasmodia developed in all the plates. Two plates contained 
particularly well developed grayish-white plasmodia. These were 
more or less fan shape, measuring 4 cm. across the ‘‘fan,’’ with stream 
of protoplasm extending back for several centimeters along the path, 
which the main portion of the plasmodium had recently traversed. 
One of these fruited on February 17th, producing about 150 sporangia 
which belonged to the genus Didymiwm. On February 18th a part of 
the other plasmodium was transferred to hay infusion agar and is still 
active in culture in May. The portion not transferred fruited two 
days later as a Didymium. 

On February 17 wide mouth bottles of approximately one liter 
capacity were half filled with wet sand and sterilized. Samples of 
decaying grass from the field were placed on the sand in a rather com- 
pact mat three fourths of an inch in depth. By the end of the first 
week one of the twelve bottles thus prepared contained a visible plas- 
modium which climbed up on the side of the bottle. It was grayish- 
white in color and measured 1.5-2 centimeters in diameter. During 
the following week plasmodia were observed in two additional bottles. 
On February 27th, a few leaves from three of the bottles not containing 
visible plasmodia were dropped on mannite agar. Plasmodia de- 
veloped in three-fourths of the plates. (See numbers 9, 12 & 13 in 
table 2). It was evident that the agar medium was not necessary for 
the development of plasmodia. 

On February 20 (a warm period in 1930) the tobacco fields of the 
Bureau of Plant Industry and the University of Maryland, situated 
near Marlboro, Maryland, were visited. Various samples were 
collected. One mass of decaying annual grasses and the soft soil 
down to about 10 em. and totalling perhaps 1 liter was placed in a 
bag and brought to the laboratory where it was transferred to a covered 
dish about 25 em. in diameter and 10 cm. deep without adding any 
water. In approximately one week a plasmodium moved up from this 
mass out upon the glass and spread over about half of the inside of the 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 THOM AND RAPER: MYXAMOEBAE IN SOIL 365 


glass cover. During the following night the fruit bodies of a species of 
Didymium were produced. 

In other dishes numerous small plasmodia were produced and 
spread outward from pieces of grass, ragweed stems and stems of 
Erigeron collected from various tobacco plots, and scattered over 
mannite agar. In some dishes millions of small myxamoebae were 
seen and later fruited abundantly as Dictyostelium. 

In these various plates, microscopic examination regularly showed 
many encysted as well as active myxamoebae. Microscopic mounts 
from the dry stems and leaves as brought to the laboratory showed 
many such cysts which appeared to be similar to those which developed 
from time to time in the cultures. From these observations it was 
evident that myxomycetes and allied forms are well represented in the 
tobacco fields of Marlboro. 

In the samples collected and plated thus far, no attempt had been 
made to separate the standing leaves and culms from those lying on 
the soil. The question now arose as to whether the myxomycetes 
were present only in the basal portion of standing grass leaves andin 
leaves lying on the soil, hence protected against extremes of tempera- 
ture and desiccation, or if they were also present in leaves standing 
several inches above the soil. And if present in both, what was their 
relative abundance in the two? ‘To determine this point a series of 
samples were collected; the uppermost portion of standing leaves and 
those lying on the soil were collected and plated separately, the 
former type being designated by ‘‘A’”’ following the sample number, 
the latter type by ‘‘B” following the same sample number. The first 
of these were collected on February 21st; other samples being taken 
at later dates. Plasmodia appeared in 70% of all plates prepared 
from ‘‘A’’ samples and in 67.7% of those prepared from ‘‘B”’ samples. 
A full account of these platings is given in table 1. 

During the same period some additional ‘‘composite’’ samples were 
collected and plated. Plasmodia appeared in 71% of all plates pre- 
pared from these samples. <A detailed account is given in table 2. 

All the myxomycetes thus far isolated from decaying grass, and 
cultured as above until fruits were produced, belonged to the genus 
Didymium. Species have not been determined. 

Steps were then taken to determine whether or not plasmodia could 
be obtained from the soil underlying the sod from which the grass 
samples had been taken. Soil samples from varying levels ranging 
from the surface to a depth of twelve inches were diluted with 10 ce. 


9 


366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 15 


of sterile water, and the resulting suspension streaked on mannite 
agar plates by means of a platinum loop. Four or five streaks, a single 
drop of the suspension being used for each, were made across a plate 
and two or three plates prepared for each sample. Twenty-seven 


TABLE 1.—Grass SAMPLES—STANDING AND THAT ADJACENT TO Sor, PLATED 





























SEPARATELY 
A. Grass erect B. Cie on | 
Sample| 2% as n Es Bee Date of 
Ne S § 2 2 E = inocu- Type of grass Pamiplink Remarks 
=a 9 Q aes S 2 | lation 
ieee oo eee 
° 3 =| O° ac} i=] 
Z a Z Be 
2 2 0 2 PA ZF Mare Feb. 21 | Rye stems. Last sum- 
'mer’s growth 
3 4 1 4 2| 12 | Orchard grass | Feb. 21 | Samples 2 to 5 inelu- 
4 = 3 4 aie — Feb. 21 sive taken in very 
5 4 Z 4 De sel — Feb. 21 warm weather for 
Feb. Grass very dry 
15 5 5 4 3 |} 9 | Bluegrass Feb. 27 | Samples 15 & 16 taken 
16 4 4 4 4 9 | Orchard grass | Feb. 27 day after rain. 
Grass moist. Tem- 
perature high (Feb.) 
18 4 0 4 1 | 12 | Bluegrass ° Mar. 20 | See ¥19 below 
Pig 2 2 2 2/| 14 | Sedge Mar. 22 | Samples dry 
23 3 3 3 3 | 14 | Velvet grass Mar. 22} Temperature rather 
low but not freezing 
24 4 1 4 2| 14 | Orchard grass | Mar. 22 
25° 3 3 3 3 | 17 | Bluegrass Mar. 22 
26 5 5 5 3 | 17 | Bluegrass Apr. 11 |} Samples 26-29 inelu- 
27 3 3 3 2| 17. | Velvet grass Apr. ll sive. Taken follow- 
28° 5 5) 6 5 | 17 | Bluegrass Apr. 11 ing heavy rains. 
29 4 2 3 0 | 17 | Orchard grass | Apr. 11 Temperature 60-70° 
19 4 3 4 4| 12 | Velvet grass Mar. 20} Samples 18 & 19 rather 
SS ee dry. Temperature 
60 | 42] 59) 40 40-55°F. 
= 70% | = 67.7% 





* Sedge collected from west end of reservoir, sample dry when taken but had been 
covered with water during much of winter. 
®’ Very heavy sod in each ease. 


samples from five ‘‘borings” were collected. ‘The plates were exam- 
ined after incubation at room temperature from ten days to two weeks. 
Amoeboids, amoebae or myxamoebae were found to be very numer- 
ous in all the samples, even those taken from a depth of twelve inches, 
but plasmodia developed from only two of the twenty seven samples. 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 THOM AND RAPER: MYXAMOEBAE IN SOIL 367 


One was obtained from a sample of earth collected at a depth of four 
inches underlying a blue grass sod on March 11th, and resembled 
closely the plasmodia of Didymium which we have in culture. The 
other was obtained about two weeks later from a sample taken at a 
depth of three inches underlying another blue grass sod in the same 


TABLE 2.—Grass Sampues (A. & B. Not SEPARATED) 












































A. &B. 
Num- 
ber 
Seple No.of aa gaye gas Type of Grass Remarks 
plates | pine) Sym 
modia 
I 6 5 12 | Feb. 21 | Rye-Compost | Rye cut last summer and thrown 
heap on compost heap. Samples 
taken from this heap 
9 4 2 8 | Feb. 25} Orchard and | Samples 9 and 10: Grass from 
Bluegrass Walker Hill placed in bottles 
10 3 0 8 | Feb. 25 oe : half filled with sand 2-17-30. 
Set in greenhouse. Samples 
from these plated - 
M8 6 4 12 | Mar: 3 = Grass collected from experiment 
station at Marlboro 
12 2 2 9 | Feb. 27 | Orchard and | Samples 12 to 14 inclusive taken 
j Bluegrass from bottles in greenhouse 
13 2 2 9 | Feb. 27 e < prepared as *9 & 10 
14 4 3 9 | Feb. 27 + iS 
il 4 3 14 | Feb. 27 =e Sample taken day after rain. 
Temperature high for Febru- 
ary 
20 4 3 12 | Mar. 20| Orchard grass | Grassratherdry. Temperature 
A40-55°F . 
30 4 4 14 | Apr. 23 = Rather dry grass collected from 
roadside at reservoir, Arling- 
ton Farm 
31° 6 4 14 | Apr. 23 | Sedge Sedge collected from west end 
Ts a | of reservoir. Samples dry 
45 32 
= 71% | 


* This sample gave heavy growth of azotobacter in all plates.. Nematodes were more 
numerous than in other samples. 


field. This plasmodium was not isolated; but in the original plate it 
resembled rather closely plasmodia of Stemonitis, which had been 
grown from spores in this laboratory for comparison. This Stemonitis 
plasmodium -consisted of very close networks of delicate strands of 
colorless protoplasm. 


368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 15 


Dictyostelium was obtained in similar cultures made from two plots 
of Leonardtown loam under experimental study in the greenhouse 
including one plot limed to pH 7.1 and the other with about pH 4.2. 
Cultures from six other plots in the greenhouse showed abundant 
amoeboids, but no myxomycete was positively identified. 

Among the other experiments already performed, the effect of 
seasonal changes in temperature have been rather striking. The 
plasmodia in culture were not much affected by small changes of 
temperature, but have shown decided dislike for temperatures above 
20-22°C. This was particularly evident during the latter part of 
April and the early part of May, when there was extremely warm 
weather: The plasmodia growing in the laboratory prior to this 
became less active and grew very slowly. During the following week 
this effect was even more pronounced. Plasmodia in most cases 
broke up into sclerotia and in many cases disintegrated quite com- 
pletely. Those that were still viable were placed in an incubator with 
a temperature range of from 15 to 18°C. Within a very short time 
normal growth and activity were resumed. Subsequent culture exper- 
iments have been carried at both incubation temperatures with the 
forms in culture showing decided preference for the cooler condition. 

In another series of studies, dilution cultures at 1 to 50, 1 to 500 and 
1 to 5,000 were made to test the presence of protozoa in plots of land 
containing decomposing rye and vetch. In certain of these cultures, 
amoeboid organisms were predominant. Mannite plates were streaked 
from these tubes. Of 15 such cultures, one produced Dictyosteliwm 
and another produced plasmodia. 

These observations are recorded to call attention to the presence of 
myxomycete amoeboids as part of the soil population. Experiments 
in culture of these forms and efforts to determine their function as 
part of such populations are in progress. Meanwhile search of the 
literature furnished little information on the occurrence of Myxomy- 
cetes in the soil, and no direct reference to the isolation of plasmodia 
from décaying vegetation under winter conditions such as described 
in this paper. The following references are worthy of note: Miller 
(6) working in the Johns Hopkins Medical laboratories obtained 
Stemontis plasmodia as contaminants in protozoa cultures which 
were being grown in tap water to which had been added unsterilized 
hay. He then collected hay from various sources and again plasmodia 
were obtained. He expresses the opinion that ‘‘plasmodia are con- 
stantly present on hay in one form or another.” Lister (5) in his 
monograph of the Mycetozoa lists dead leaves and twigs as the most 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 THOM AND RAPER: MYXAMOEBAE IN SOIL 369 


common substrate for members of the genus Physarum. Also of 
interest here are P. fuluum gathered in Colorado at an elevation of 
11,000 feet on “living willow, growing in snow,” and P. vernum which 
is frequently found in the Swiss Alps growing ‘‘on leaves and grass 
close to the melting snow.’’ Krzemieniewski (4) working in Poland 
found Dictyostelium mucoroides “in almost all soils examined,” and 
species of Polysphondylium, though rarely, in uncultivated soils. 

In seeking current information several visitors were consulted and 
the cultures exhibited. Professor George W. Martin of the University 
of Iowa was shown these cultures but had no record of such observa- 
tions. Professor Robert F. Griggs of George Washington University 
reported having often seen a myxomycete fruiting upon the grass in 
his lawn in summer but that he had made no further study. Pro- 
fessor J. B. S. Norton of the University of Maryland reported similar 
observations upon the University campus. Professor H. H. Bartlett 
of the University of Michigan told of plowing an area in the Botanical 
garden at Ann Arbor and seeing large plasmodia come out upon the 
surface of the plowed ground and looking “‘like pancakes scattered 
over the field.”’ From these reports it is clear that a considerable 
number of workers have been familiar with the occurrence of these 
species in cultivated land. 

Professor R. A. Harper in his recent paper upon Polysphondylium 
and in conversation about this work attributed the suggestion of his 
method of isolation to Krzemieniewski and on the basis of his own 
rediscovery of that species in soil from the parks of New York City, 
suggested that the amoeboid forms of myxomycetes would probably 
be found to account for many of the amoebae reported by soil workers. 


CONCLUSION 


In these experiments with soil from Arlington farm in Virginia and 
tobacco plots in Marlboro, Md., the myxomycetes have been found to 
constitute an active component of the micro-population in the decay- 
ing vegetation and in the underlying soil. 

Myxamoebae and plasmodia were developed in the colder part of 
the season and have been found to grow better at 15 to 18°C. than at 
20 to 22°C. Myxamoebae at least if not the more complex plasmodia 
were found abundantly upon all parts of the grasses and weeds taken 
from our experimental plots between December and May 1930. 

Members of this group should be considered in surveying the types 
of microOrganisms present in any soil population. 


370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 15 


LITERATURE CITED 


1 Brierutey, W. B. The microflora of the soil. Jour. Quekett Microscopical Club 16: 
16. 1928. 

2 Harper, R. A. Morphogenesis in Dictyostelium. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 53: 
229-268. 1926. 

3 Harper, R. A. Morphogenesis in Polysphondylium. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 56: 
227-258. 1929. 

4 KRZEMIENIEWSKI, HeLena 8. ‘'Z Mikroflory gleby w Polsce’’ (Contribution a la 
microflore du sol en Pologne) Acta. soc. Bot. Poloniae 4: 141-144. 1927. 

5 Lister, A. & G. A monograph of the Mycetozoa. British Museum, 1911. 

6 Muiutuser, C. O. The aseptic cultivation of Mycetozoa. Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc. 41: 
43-71. 1898. 

7 Sanpon, H. The composition and distribution of the protozoan forms of the soil. Pp. 
237. Edinburgh and London, 1927. 

8 WaxsmaN, S. A. Principles of soil microbiology. 311-340. 1927. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Discovery of Permo-Carboniferous vertebrates in 
the Dunkard formation of West Virginia. R. W. Wuippie, Mari- 
etta College, and E. C. Cassz, University of Michigan. 


On December 27, 1929 Mr. Goff Carder reported to Professor R. W. 
Whipple the discovery of certain bones at Portland, Jackson County, 
West Virginia. Professor Whipple visited the locality and determined 
the horizon to be the Upper Marietta sandstone, which is in the lower 
portion of the Dunkard. The Marietta sandstones, named by I. C. 
White? from their typical outcrop in the vicinity of Marietta, Ohio, 
are easily recognized in this area; and in the interval between the 
Lower Marietta sandstone and the Upper Marietta sandstone are 
shaly sandstones, shales and red clay (Creston beds). ‘The bones are 
from the lower part of the Upper Marietta sandstone 130 feet above 
the railroad track over Skull Run. The specimen was in a soft clayey 
cross-bedded sandstone, carrying an abundance of large flakes of white 
and black mica, made up of small rounded grains of quartz and the 
whole weathering to a light brown color. 

The site was in the center of an old road and the specimen had been 
partly destroyed ‘by passing wagons. All material that could be 
recovered was collected and has been studied by Professor E. C. Case. 
The specimen consists of parts of the spines, centra and ribs of Hda- 
phosaurus cruciger Cope. More than half of four spines have been 
pieced together; there are in addition two nearly complete centra of 


1 Received June 23, 1930. 
2 West Virginia Geological Survey 2. 1903. 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 WHIPPLE AND CASE: VERTEBRATES Ord 


posterior dorsal vertebrae, two nearly complete ribs, and numerous 
fragments and short pieces of other spines and ribs. So much of the 
specimen has been recovered that the identification is certain. This 
discovery confirms the identification of a small fragment previously 
discovered at Marietta in the Creston beds horizon.? 

In a visit by Professors Whipple, Case and Hussey, to the region on 
May 31, a stop was made at Limestone Hil, on the boundary between 
Wood and Wirt counties, about thirty miles south of Marietta on the 
road to Ravenswood, West Virginia. At this locality in the cuts along 
the new highway are fine exposures of the upper Dunkard rocks with 
a series of at least four distinct limestones in the upper horizons. ‘The 
limestone at this locality was identified by I. C. White‘ as the Nineveh 
Limestone, which is one of the most important beds in the upper 
Dunkard, as it can be traced for many miles in the high ridges of hills 
in the region. It is not a well defined stratum, for it varies from one 
to five feet in thickness and is often separated into shaly and nodular 
layers. Ray V. Hennen: designates the three upper beds as the Upper 
Rockport limestone, Middle Rockport limestone and Lower Rockport 
limestone from the fine exposures developed near Rockport, Wood 
county, two and a half miles north; and in his section identifies the 
lower or fourth bed as the Nineveh limestone. These Rockport 
limestones are of only local extent, and after further field studies may 
be identified as phases of the Nineveh limestone. 

The upper Rockport is a lens of limestone from one foot to eighteen 
inches thick. At the upper surface there are a few inches of sandy 
limestone filled with fragments of bone. Below this, or a phase of it, 
is a dark mud-shale with numerous fragments. The shale is so fragile 
that it could not be handled without preparation but there were 
identified in the field: Pleuracanthus (probably the form described 
by Stauffer and Schroyer as Diplodus washingtonensis); scales and 
teeth of fish, probably the Paleoniscus of Stauffer and Schroyer; 
vertebrae very similar to Lysorophous; vertebrae very similar to 
Theropleura; a few large teeth of a Pelycosaur like Dimetrodon; a small 
amphibian femur of the type of Trimerorhachis; and numerous frag- 
ments of plates from the head of a similar form. 


3 StTaurFer, C. R. and Scuroyer, C. R. The Dunkard series cf Ohio. Bulletin 22, 
Fourth Series, 1920. 

*U.S. Geol. Survey Bulletin No. 65: 33. 1891. 

° West Virginia Geol. Survey, Report on Wirt, Roane and Calhoun Counties. 46 and 
143. 1911. 


372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 15 


A careful study of the material is planned and may lead to different 
conclusions, but it seems quite certain that the fauna is very similar 
to that previously described from near Danville, Illinois, and to that 
of the Permo-Carboniferous beds of Texas and Oklahoma. 


BOTANY.—A new species of Calathea from Panamd.! C. V. Morton, 
National Museum. (Communicated by Wiiiiam R. Maxon). 


The following species of Calathea was discovered by Dr. A. F. Skutch 
while engaged in research work at the experiment station of the United 
Fruit Company at Almirante, Panamd, and is based on ample material 
presented by him to the U. 8. National Museum. The description is 
also drawn in part from field notes made by Doctor Skutch, who is 
planning to publish shortly an account of the morphology and method 
of unrolling of the leaves. 


Calathea magnifica Morton & Skutch, sp. nov. 


Large herb reaching a height of 5 meters; radical leaves 2-ranked, homo- 
tropous; petioles reaching about 290 cm. in length, the lower half sheathing, 
the upper half terete, 1.3-1.6 cm. thick, the callous body at its upper end 23 
em. long; lamina with the right half always innermost in vernation, gradually 
increasing in size until the plant matures, oblong, truncate at apex, slightly 
asymmetric, the largest 114 cm. long by 58 cm. broad, glabrous, the lower 
surface whitish with a thick layer of wax, this separating in large flakes upon 
drying: stem 110-150 cm. long, bearing two leaves, the first one with the 
blade equaling that of the radical leaves, the second reduced; sheath 30-56 
em. long, not or scarcely auriculate, pubescent with short, simple hairs; in- 
florescence of two groups of spikes, one group from the axil of each of the 
cauline leaves; peduncles of spikes in the axils of lower leaf 30-60 cm. long, 
of upper leaf 10-50 cm. long, flattened, often flexuous, pubescent (especially 
at apex), streaked with pale green and brown; primary spikes 7-9, secondary 
spikes often arising from the lowermost bract of a primary, subcylindric, 18— 
30 em. long, 3.5-5 em. thick, the bracts 16-20 or more, distichous but some- 
what displaced by a spiral twist of the axis, thus forming two spiral series, 
leathery-chartaceous, broadly obcordate, 5-6 cm. long, 5.5—7 em. broad, pale 
green streaked or washed with brown, sparsely pubescent outside, glabrous 
within; primary bractlets winged on the back, hispid along the wing; flowers 
in pairs, the two usually not developing simultaneously, 4.6 cm. long; sepals 
lanceolate, 9-10 mm. long; corolla tube 2.6 em. long, lobes oblong, obtuse, 
20 mm. long, 7 mm. broad, dark Corinthian purple; staminodium white, 
obovate, 1.5 em. long, ovary naked, surrounded by a tuft of hairs arising from 
its base; capsule loculicidal, 1.7 em. long, pink; seed 7 mm. long; aril lamel- 
lose, 5 mm. long. 


Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,409,622-3, collected at the 


research station of the United Fruit Company, Almirante, Panama, April 
20, 1929, by A. F. Skutch (no. 12). 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the ee Institution. Received 
June 15, 193(). 


By is) 


CALATHEA FROM PANAMA 


EW 


— 
N 


30 MORTON: 


« 
. 


SEPTEMBER 19. 19 





Inflorescence and leaf, 


kutch 


Morton and §S 


ifica 


Fig. 1. Calathea magn 


# 


hae 
wee 


eas j 

x A 
% 

es,” 


i 


t 4 





lew. 


Fig. 2. Same, habitat v 


374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. 20, No. 15 


Dr. Skutch’s field notes state that Calathea magnifica is the most abundant 
and conspicuous Calathea in the lowlands of the province of Bocas del Toro. 
It forms close stands in marshy places and at the borders of lagoons, and some- 
times also in fairly well drained pasture land, but always in open places rather 
than dense jungles. It was in flower from January to June at least, but at 
the latter date the spikes were very old. At maturity the pedicel disinte- 
grates, freeing the capsule, which then oozes through the plentiful slime coat- 
ing the bracts and bractlets until it is exposed at the top, when it is burst by 
the swelling of the aril. The seeds are sought by birds. 

It is surprising that such a large and beautiful species as Calathea magnifica 
could have remained so long undiscovered. Its closest alliance is with C. 
lutea (Aubl.) G. F. W. Meyer. This common Central American plant, which 
is usually smaller, has smaller spikes with fewer, bronze or reddish colored 
bracts, and yellow corollas. Related also is C. insignis Peters, a species 
smaller in all parts, having non-ceraceous leaves, glabrous, more widely 
spreading, closely imbricated bracts, and yellowish or whitish corollas. 

In Fig. 1 the scale is indicated by the ruler, which is 30 cm. long. 


BOTANY.—Ten new species of Passiflora, mainly from Colombia and 
Peru.' Exviuswortu P. Kiuurp, U. 8. National Museum. 

In the present paper ten new species of Passiflora are described, 
four of which are based upon material collected in the course of botani- 
cal exploration in Colombia and Peru recently carried on by the Smith- 
sonian Institution. 


Passiflora dolichocarpa Killip, sp. nov. 


Stem subquadrangular, hispidulous; stipules semi-ovate, 6 to 7 mm. long, 
2 to 3 mm. wide, finely hispidulous, especially at margin; petioles about 2 
cm. long, slender, biglandular at or slightly below middle, the glands clavate, 
about 1.5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, sessile; leaves hastately 3-lobed, 6 to 10 
cm. long, 4.5 to 7 em. wide (middle lobe lanceolate, acuminate, 3.5 to 4 em. 
wide at base, the basal lobes reduced, short-acuminate), sinuate-dentate at 
margin, cordulate at base, membranous, finely hispidulous on both surfaces; 
peduncles in pairs, 3.5 to 4 em. long. slender, articulate near apex; bracts 
semi-ovate, 4 to 5 mm. long, 3 to 4 mm. wide, oblique at base, sessile, irregu- 
larly lobed. hispidulous, borne at upper third of peduncle; flowers about 2.5 
cm. wide; sepals oblong, 10 to 13 mm. long, 7 to 8 mm. wide, slightly cucullate 
at apex, hispidulous without, white, longitudinally streaked with red or 
purple within; petals oblong, 8 to 10 mm. long, 3 to 4 mm. wide, obtuse, white; 
corona filaments in a single series, narrowly linear, 6 to 7 mm. long, white, 
banded with red or purple; operculum plicate, about 1.5 mm. high, the mar- 
gin incurved, minutely denticulate; limen annular; ovary ovoid, tapering at 
apex, stipitate at base, glabrous; fruit narrowly ovoid-clavate, about 6 cm. 
long (including stipe 1.5 em. long), 1.5 em. in diameter; seeds broadly obovate, 
3 to 4 mm. long, reticulate, flattened. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
July 8, 1930. 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 KILLIP: TEN NEW PASSIFLORAS 310 


Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,315,639, collected at Chicavac, 
Department Tecpan, Guatemala, altitude 2500 meters, December 25, 1926, 
by G. Salas (no. 584). 


Although obviously related to P. szcyoides this species bears conspicuous 
bracts, shaped much like the stipules, and cleft somewhat as in P. adenopoda. 
The leaves are distinctly hastate, proportionately much narrower than in the 
case of other species of this relationship. The fruit is unusually long and 
narrow for the group. 

The common name is given as “granadilla.”’ 


Passiflora tenella Killip, sp. nov. 


Slender herbaceous vine, essentially glabrous throughout; stem subangular, 
‘striate; stipules setaceous, 1.5 mm. long; petioles very slender, 1 to 2.5 em. 
long, glandless, sparingly pilosulous toward apex; leaves transversely oblong 
in general outline, 1.5 to 3 cm. long, 4 to 7 em. wide, shallowly 3-lobed at the 
truncate apex (lobes obtuse or truncate; rarely the leaves distinctly 3-lobed 
about a third their length), retuse at base, 3-nerved, not ocellate beneath, 
bright green above, glaucous beneath, thin-membranous; peduncles solitary, 
1-flowered, very slender, 2 to 3 cm. long, articulate just below apex; bracts 
setaceous, 2 mm. long, soon deciduous; flowers about 1.5 em. wide, greenish 
white; sepals narrowly lanceoiate, 8 to 9 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. wide at base, 
acutish, 3-nerved, reticulate-veined, thin-transparent; petals linear, 2 to 3 
mm. long, obtuse, thin-transparent; corona filaments filiform, in two series, 
the outer filaments equaling the sepals, the inner barely 2 mm. long; opereu- 
lum membranous, about 1 mm. high, very slightly plicate; ovary narrowly 
ellipsoidal, glabrous; fruit ellipsoidal, about 3 cm. long, 0.8 cm. in diameter, 
tapering to a stipitate base, acuminate at apex, 6-ribbed; seeds narrowly 
obovate, about 2.5 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, transversely 4- or 5-sulcate, the 
ridges rugulose. 

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no. 
571,848, collected on plain southeast of Hacienda La Choza, Department 
Tumbez, Peru, altitude 100 to 200 meters, February 28 to March 3, 1927, by . 
A. Weberbauer (no. 7704). Duplicate in U. 8. National Herbarium (no. 
1,420,160). Additional specimens examined: 


Prru: Lima Botanic Garden, said to have come from forests of eastern 
Peru, Pennell 14801 (Herb. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci.). 

This interesting species probably belongs to the subgenus Plectostemma, 
although the small operculum, scarcely plicate, and the angular, capsule-like 
fruit suggest rather a relationship with P. tryphostemmatoides and P. gracil- 
lima, of Harms’ group Tryphosiemmatoides. The flowers, as well as the fruits, 
resemble those of P. gracilis, a wholly different species without petals and 
with reticulate seeds and glandular petioles. The leaves are shaped much 
like those of P. punctata, another Peruvian species, but the far more delicate 
flowers, with filiform corona filaments and a glabrous ovary. clearly separate 
itis 

Passiflora dawei Killip, sp. nov. 


Stem triangular, striate, minutely puberulous, at length glabrate; stipules 
narrowly linear-faleate, 9 to 10 mm. long, 1 mm. wide; petioles 3.5 to 4 em. 


376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 15 


long, glandless; leaves broadly ovate-oblong in general outline, 8 to 10 cm. 
along midnerve, 10 to 14 cm. along lateral nerves, 8 to 10 cm. wide at middle, 
6 to 7 em. wide between the tips of the lobes, 2-lobed about a third their 
length (lobes lanceolate, acute, the sinus deeply sinuate, mucronulate at — 
base), rounded or subtruncate at base, 3-nerved, ocellate beneath, subcoria- 
ceous, essentially glabrous, bright green (when dry) on both surfaces; peduncles 
5 to 7 em. long, articulate about 1 em. below apex; bracts narrowly linear, 
5 to 6 mm. long, 0.5 to 1 mm. wide; flowers (not fully developed) 3.5 to 4 
em. wide; sepals oblong-lanceolate, 1.5 to 2 em. Jong, about 0.8 cm. wide, 
obtuse; petals similar to and slightly shorter than the sepals; corona fila- 
ments in two series, the outer trigonous, conspicuously dilated at and above 
middle, dark purple, the inner filiform, half as long, minutely capitellate; 
operculum closely plicate; limen annular; ovary globose, densely white pilose. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,422,886, collected in the 
Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, in February, 1916, by M. T. Dawe 
(no. 57). 


This species is distinguished from P. chelidonea by proportionately broader 
leaves, longer peduncles, larger bracts, and by the shape of the outer corona 
filaments. It might be confused with P. alnifolia, a species common in the 
Central Cordillera of Colombia, but that has quite differently shaped outer 
corona filaments, shorter peduncles, and smaller leaves. 


Passiflora bucaramangensis Killip, sp. nov. 


Slender herbaceous vine, essentially glabrous throughout; stems slightly 
trigonous, striate, minutely scabrid; stipules narrowly linear-faicate or almost 
setaceous, 1 to 2 mm. long, reddish purple; petioles slender, 1 to 2.5 em. long, 
glandless; leaves transversely oblong, 1 to 3 em. long, 3 to 7 em. wide, 3-lobed 
about a third their length (lobes subequal or the middle lobes slightly the 
longest, 1 to 2 cm. wide, obtuse or truncate, sometimes emarginate at apex), 
truncate or cordate at base, 3-nerved (nerves and veins usually prominent 
beneath), ocellate beneath, subcoriaceous, drying green; peduncles in pairs, 
* about 1.5 cm. long, very slender; bracts setaceous, about 1mm. long, scattered, 
persistent; flowers about 2 cm.*wide; sepals linear-oblong, about 10 mm. long, 
3 mm. wide, obtuse, grass-green, pale at margin; petals oblong, 5 to 6 mm. 
long, 3 mm. wide, obtuse, white; corona filaments in two series, the outer 
filaments narrowly linear-clavate, 4 to 5 mm. long, deep purple below, green 
at the slightly enlarged tip, the inner filaments filiform, 2 to 3 mm. long, grass- 
green; operculum closely plicate, denticulate at margin, deep purple; limen 
annular, green; ovary globose; fruit globose, 8 to 9 mm. in diameter; seeds 
obcordate, 3 mm. long, 2.5 mm. wide, transversely 5-sulcate, the ridges 
rugulose. 


Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,352,481, collected near La 
Baja, north of Bucaramanga, Department Santander, Colombia, altitude 
2,400 ‘quem January 8, 1927, by E. P. Killip and Albert C. Smith (no. 
16787). 


Additional specimens examined: 

CoLomBIA: Santander: Mesa de los Santos, 1,500 meters, Killip & Smith 
15364 (N). California, 2,200 meters, Killip & Smith 17046 (G, N, Y), 
18842 (G, N, Y). Tona, 2,000 meters, Killip & Smith 19508 (G, N). 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 KILLIP: TEN NEW PASSIFLORAS old 


This is distinguished from P. erythrophylla by equally 3-lobed leaves, the 
more slender and longer inner filaments of the corona, and by the relative 
length of the sepals to the petals. 


Passiflora popayanensis Killip, sp. nov. 


Stem angular, compressed, tortuous, glabrous; stipules linear-setaceous, 
about 2 mm. long; petioles up to 1.5 cm. long, minutely pilosulous, glandless; 
leaves oblong or ovate-oblong, 5 to 7 cm. long, 3 to 3.5 em. wide, bilobed 
(lobes lanceolate, 2 to 2.5 cm. long, acuminate, mucronulate, the sinus trun- 
cate, often with a small intermediate lobe present), rounded at base, 3-nerved, 
membranous, glabrous, dark green, usually paler along nerves above, glau- 
cous beneath; peduncles slender, up to 3 cm. long, articulate just below apex; 
bracts setaceous, 2 to 4 mm. long, borne above middle of peduncle; flowers 
3 to 3.5 em. wide; sepals oblong-lanceolate, 1.2 to 1.5 cm. long, about 0.4 em. 
wide, obtuse; petals spatulate, 6 to 7 mm. long, about 3 mm. wide, obtuse, 
reticulate-veined toward apex, white, the veins darker; corona filaments in 
two series, filiform, the outer 6 to 7 mm. long, the inner 4 to 5 mm. long; 
operculum slightly plicate, the margin minutely fimbrillate; nectar ring annu- 
lar; limen cushion-like, closely surrounding the bajse of gynophore; gynophore 
very slender; ovary ovoid, glabrous. 


Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, collected on Sotaré Volcano, near 
Popaydn, Department El Cauca, Colombia, altitude 2,400 to 2,900 meters, 
March 3, 1884, by F. C. Lehmann (no. 3731). 


This specimen is cited by Masters as P. chelidonea Mast. in a report of 
Lehmann’s Passifloraceae,? and is the original of a detailed drawing of “P. 
chelidonea.’’* ‘The thinner, more deeply lobed leaves, glaucous beneath, the 
longer peduncles, more slender corona filaments, the two series of which are 
of nearly equal length, and the smaller flowers distinguish P. popayanensis 
from P. chelidonea. The ovary is glabrous, that of P. chelidonea densely 
-puberulent. 


Passiflora lyra Planch. & Linden, sp. nov. 


Stem sharply angular, puberulent; stipules setaceous, 5 to 10 mm. long, 
deciduous; petioles stout, up to 2.5 cm. long, glandless; leaves ovate-lanceo- 
late, 8 to 12 cm. long, 5 to 8 cm. wide, narrowed near the truncate apex, 
shallowly 2 (or obscurely 3)-lobed (lobes less than 1 cm. long, acute), rounded 
at base, subcoriaceous, shining and very dark green and finely and sparsely 
puberulent above, reddish and densely and softly tomentulous beneath, 
bearing two conspicuous, white, sub-crustaceous glands in the angles of the 
nerves; flowers white, about 4 cm. wide, on axillary branches up to 10 cm. 
long which bear much reduced leaves; bracts setaceous, about 5 mm. long; 
sepals lanceolate, about 1.5 em. long, 0.5 em. wide, acutish; petals linear, 
about 5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, very slender; corona filaments in two series, 
the outer filiform, 4 to 5 mm. long, slightly torulose, the inner capillary, 2 
mm. long, capitellate; operculum membranous, slightly plicate, erect, irregu- 
larly lacerate to middle, about 2 mm. high; limen annular; ovary ovoid, 
densely brown-pilose. 


2 Bot. Jahrb. Engler 8: 218. 1887. 
3 Harms in Engl. & Prantl Nat. Pflanzenfam. Aufl. 2, 21: 499, f. 230, C, D. 1925. 


378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 15 


Type in the herbarium of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, col- 
lected at Cumbre de Valencia, State of Carabobo, Venezuela, May, 1846, 
by Funck and Schlim (no. 552). 

The leaves of this species are much like those of typical forms of P. cheli- 
donea in general outline, though much less deeply lobed. The dense indu- 
ment on the ovary and under surface of the leaves and the position of the 
flowers on short axillary branches are the most obvious characters by which 
P. lyra may be distinguished from P. chelidonea. 


Passiflora smithii Killip, sp. nov. 


Plant glabrous throughout; stem terete; stipules semi-ovate or subreniform, 
2.5 to 3.5 em. long, 1 to 1.5 em. wide, aristulate at apex, rounded at base, 
coriaceous; petioles 2.5 to 4 em. long, 2- to 4-glandular near middle, the glands 
0.5 mm. long; leaves 8 to 12 em. long, 10 to 15 em. wide, 3-lobed about three- 
quarters their length (lobes oblong or elliptic-oblong, 2.5 to 3 cm. wide, 
narrowed to an obtuse apex, minutely glandular-serrulate in the rounded 
sinuses), subtruncate or cordulate at base, 5-nerved, strongly reticulate- 
veined, coriaceous or subcoriaceous; peduncles 6 to 7 em. long, slender; 
bracts narrowly lanceolate, 6 to 8 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. wide, acuminate, 
sessile, deciduous, borne at separate points near middle of peduncle; flowers 
about 5 em. wide; calyx tube broadly campanulate, about 5 mm. long, 10 
mm. wide; sepals oblong, about 2 em. long, 0.7 em. wide, obtuse, slightly 
cucullate, minutely awned dorsally (awn about 1 mm. long); petals linear- 
oblong, about 1 cm. long, 0.4 em. wide, obtuse; corona filaments in several 
series, the outermost narrowly liguliform, 0.8 to 1 cm. long, the succeeding 
3 or 4 series filiform, about 2 mm. long, minutely capitellate; operculum 
membranous, about 7 mm. high, closely plicate, lacerate-cleft to below middle; 
nectar ring annular, obscure; limen about 4 mm. high, closely surrounding 
base of gynophore, irregularly denticulate; ovary ovoid, glabrous; fruit ovoid, 
about 6 em. long, 3 to 3.5 em. in diameter; seeds oblong, about 6 mm. long, | 
reticulate. 

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,350,965, collected on northern 
slope of Mesa de los Santos, Department Santander, Colombia, altitude 1200 
meters, December 11, 1926, by E. P. Killip and Albert C. Smith (no. 15015). 

Additional specimen examined: CoLomsBra: Department Cundinamarca, 
Tequendama Falls, 1,000 meters, Triana 2947, in part (British Museum). 


The tendency among students of Passiflora has been to place in the sub- 
genus Granadilla all species with large involucral bracts and a complicated 
coronal structure, subdividing Granadilla on the basis of the leaf shape, 
stipules, and other vegetative characters, thus failing to bring together species 
that evidently are closely related in flower structure. Harms has suggested! 
a more logical treatment in his recent revision of the family, although he here 
considers only a part of the described species. Passiflora kermesina Link & 
Otto (P. raddiana DC.) he places by itself in a separate series (no. 2) of 
Granadilla, characterized by small bracts and a plicate filamentose operculum. 


4 Engl. & Prantl Nat. Pflanzenfam. Aufl. 2, 21: 502-504. 1925. 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 KILLIP: TEN NEW PASSIFLORAS 379 


To this series should be referred P. miersiz, P. lehmannit, P. trisulca, P. wat- 
soniana, P. eggersit, and P. smithu. From P. trisulca, with which it appears 
to be most closely related, the proposed species differs in less deeply lobed 
leaves which have obtuse apices, and in the shape of the petiolar glands. 

Apparently two species are represented by Triana’s 2947. The plant at 
Geneva is P. subpeliata Ort. (P. alba Link & Otto), but the plant at the 
British Museum is distinct. ‘Triana and Planchon cited no. 2947 as P. 
stipulata (P. subpeltata, not. P. stipulata Aubl.). Triana’s 2946, seen at 
Paris and in the British Museum is also P. subpeltata. 


Passiflora cuzcoensis Killip, sp. nov. 


Plant glabrous throughout; stem terete, or the younger portions subangu- 
late; stipules semi-oblong, 2 to 2.5 em. long, 0.7 to 0.9 em. wide, acutish at 
apex, rounded at base, obscurely crenulate; petioles 2 to 3 cm. long, slender, 
biglandular in upper third, the glands minute, subulate, 0.5 to 0.8 mm. long; 
leaves suborbicular in general outline, 3-lobed at apex, 5 to 7 cm. along mid-, 
nerve, 4 to 6 em. along lateral nerves (lobes rounded, minutely mucronulate 
the middle lobe 2 to 3 cm. wide), rounded or subtruncate at base, entire, 5 
(or obscurely 7)-nerved, membranous: peduncles slender, 3 to 3.5 cm. long: 
bracts 3, subimbricate, unequal (one larger than the others), cordate, 2.5 to 
3 cm. long, 2 to 2.5 em. wide, obtuse, crenate-serrulate toward apex, ‘persist- 
ent; flowers about 5 cm. wide; calyx tube campanulate; sepals lance-oblong, 
about 2 cm. long, 1 cm. wide, obtuse, awned dorsally just below apex, the 
awn foliaceous, up to 5 mm. long; petals lance-oblong, about 1.5 cm. long, 0.8 
em. wide, obtuse; corona filaments in two series, the outer radiate, about 2 
cm. long, very slender, apparently concolorous, the inner (borne about 2 mm. 
from the outer), filiform, 1.5 to 2 mm. long; operculum membranous, about 
2 mm. high, denticulate, bearing on outside just below margin a row of very 
slender filaments about 1 mm. long; limen cupuliform, closely surrounding 
base of gynophore; ovary not seen. 


Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,442,740, collected in Mar- 
capata Valley, near Chilechile, Province Guispicanchi, Department Cuzco, 
Peru, February 21, 1929, by A. Weberbauer (no. 7872). 


The unusual arrangement of the bracts indicates the relationship of this 
species to P. tetraden, which it resembles also in the outline of the leaves. 
The flowers of the two species differ in several details: In P. cuzcoensis the 
sepals are awned, in P. tetraden they are without awns, apparently an im- 
portant difference in the subgenus Granadilla to which both belong; the 
principal or radiate corona filaments are in a single series and concolorous in 
P. cuzcoensis, in two series and alternately banded with blue and white in 
P. tetraden; the inner corona consists of short filaments in P. cuzcoens?s, of 
mere tubercles in P. tetraden. 


Passiflora spectabilis Killip, sp. nov. 


Herbaceous vine, glabrous throughout; stem terete, the younger portions 
subangular; stipules semi-ovate or semi-oblong, 2 to 6 em. long, 0.8 to 4 em. 
wide, obtuse and mucronulate at apex (mucrone up to 1.5 mm. long), rounded 
at base, entire or undulate, the midnerve eccentric; petioles 3 to 8 em. long, 


380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 15 


bearing two subopposite (or three scattered) sessile ovate glands about 1.5 
mm. long, leaves 3-lobed not more than to middle, 6 to 12 cm. along midnerve, 
5 to 10 em. along lateral nerves, 10 to 20 em. wide (lobes broadly triangular, 
obtuse or subacute), peltate 5 mm. or more from lower margin (at least the 
older leaves), 5-nerved, subcoriaceous, glaucescent beneath, at length green; 
peduncles solitary, 3 to 6 cm. long, articulate at least 5 mm. from apex; 
bracts ovate, 6 to 7 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. wide, acute at apex, narrowed at 
the sessile base, green, borne at point of articulation; flowers 5 to 7 em. wide; 
sepals oblong, about 4 cm. long, 1 cm. wide, obtuse, slightly carinate, short- 
awned (awn 0.5 to 1 mm. long), fleshy, green without, light pink or white 
within; petals linear, about 2.5 cm. long, 0.4 em. wide, obtuse, light pink or 
white; corona filaments filiform, very slender, in four series, those of the two 
outer about 2.5 em. long, blue, white at tips, those of the inner 2 to 2.5 mm. 
long, bifid at apex, white; operculum about 7 mm. high, filamentose nearly 
to base, the filaments white, blue in upper third; limen tubular, about 5 mm. 
high, closely surrounding base of gynophore; ovary subglobose; fruit globose, 
5 em. in diameter, purplish when ripe, edible; seeds obovate, about 8 mm. 
long, 5 mm. wide, coarsely reticulate. 


Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,356,557, collected at Mis- 
hduyacu, about 15 kilometers southwest of Iquitos, Department Loreto, 
Peru, altitude 100 meters, September 26, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. 
Smith (no. 29884). Duplicates in the New York Botanical Garden and 
the Field Museum of Natural History. 

Additional specimens examined: 

Peru: Junin: Pichis Trail, Enefias, 1600 meters, Killip & Smith 25764. 
Loreto: Iquitos, 100 meters, Killip & Smith 27165. 


This is related to the Bolivian plant P. rubrotincta, both of these species 
being peltate much farther from the margin than in the case of other repre- 
sentatives of the subgenus Granadilla. Passiflora spectabilis has proportion- 
ately broader leaves than P. rubrotincita, smaller bracts which are borne fully 
5 mm. below the flower, and very short awns to the sepals. 

Locally this is known as pucu-pucu. 


Passiflora crassifolia Killip, sp. nov. 


Herbaceous tendril-bearing vine; stem subterete, striate, densely villous 
with spreading grayish hairs; stipules subreniform, 1.5 to 2.5 em. long, 0.6 
to 1 em. wide, subamplexicaul, aristate (awn about 4 mm. long), reticuiate- 
veined, coriaceous, glabrous above, villous on veins beneath and at margin; 
petioles villosulous, 2 to 6 cm. long, bearing 4 to 6 subsessile glands, dissitate 
the whole length of the petiole, 0.6 to 0.8 mm. in diameter; leaves lanceolate 
or ovate-lanceolate, 10 to 18 cm. long, 6 to 12 cm. wide, not lobed or occasion- 
ally obsoletely lobed in lower third, obtuse at apex, deeply cordate at base 
with a narrow sinus, entire or sparingly serrulate toward base, 7-nerved, reticu- 
late-veined (nerves and veins prominent beneath), entire, thick-coriaceous, 
dark green and glabrous above, paler and appresséd-villous on the nerves and 
veins beneath; peduncles solitary, about 5 em. long, villous; bracts lanceolate, 
1.5 to 2 em. long, 0.7 to 0.8 em. wide, sharp-acuminate at apex, cordulate, 
subsessile, glabrous above, villous on nerves and veins beneath, borne about 
5 mm. below base of flower; calyx tube tubular-campanulate, about 5 mm. 
long, 6 mm. in diameter; sepals oblong, dorsally awned, the awn 2 to 3 mm. 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 HITCHCOCK: FOUR NEW GRASSES 381 


long; corona filaments in three or four series, the outermost about 7 mm. 
long; operculum membranous, about 5 mm. high, filamentose in upper half; 
fruit ovoid or ellipsoidal, 4 to 6 em. long, 2 to 2.5 cm. wide, villosulous; seeds 
narrowly oblong, 6 to 7 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. wide, shallowly tridentate. at 
apex, coarsely reticulate. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,356,480, collected in thickets, 
La Merced, Department Junin, Peru, altitude 700 meters, May 29, 1929, by 
EK. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 23484). 

Additional specimens examined: 

Peru: Junin: La Merced, Killip & Smith 23382; Macbride 5371. Along 
Perené River, near “Hacienda 3,’ Colonia’ Perené, altitude 600 meters, 
Killip & Smith 25181. 

This species is related to P. menispermifolka and P. nephrodes, differing 
from both in having essentially entire leaves. In addition, the bracts of P. 
menispermifolia are much narrower and glandular-denticulate, and in P. 
nephrodes the petiolar glands are much more slender. The specimens ex- 
amined are all in fruit, with badly withered floral parts, so that an accurate 
description of the coronal structure is not possible. Apparently the outer- 
most corona filaments are much shorter than in P. menispermifolia or P. 


nephrodes. 


BOTANY .—Four new STS A. 8. Hircucocx, Bureau of Plant 
Industry. 


Recently Professor L. F. Henderson, Curator of the herbarium of 
the University of Oregon, Eugene, sent to the Grass Herbarium of the 
U.S. National Herbarium for identification, a specimen of grass which 
represents an undescribed species. In a region so well explored as 
western Oregon, it was surprising to find a novelty among the grasses. 

The grasses recently collected in Peru by E. P. Killip and A. C. 
Smith were submitted to me for identification. Among these speci- 
mens there were two undescribed species, as well as several species not 
included in the grass flora of Peru as described in the ‘‘Grasses of 
Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia”’ by Hitchcock (Contr. U. 8S. Nat. Herb. 
24: 291-556, 1927). 

The fourth species here proposed is based on a specimen collected in 
Chile, but submitted by Dr. Ivan M. Johnston of the Gray Herbarium. 


Agrostis hendersonii Hitche., sp. nov. 


Plant apparently annual; culms slender, erect, 2-noded, glabrous, about 
11 em. tall; sheaths glabrous; ligule membranaceous, acute, 2 to 3 mm. long; 
blades flat or loosely involute, glabrous, 1 to 3 cm. long, 1 mm. wide; panicle 
condensed, about 2.5 cm. long, purplish tinged; spikelets short-pediceled, 5 to 


1 Received July 9, 1930. 


382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 15 


6 mm. long; glumes subequal, with a setaceous slightly spreading tip 1 to 2 
mm. long; lemma about 3 mm. long, with 2 setaceous teeth about 0.5 mm. 
long at the summit, the base or callus pubescent; awn from the middle of the 
back of the lemma, about 1 em. long, twice-geniculate, the first bend often 
~ somewhat obscure; palea obsolete. 


Planta annua (?); culmi erecti, 10 em. alti, ligula 2-3 mm. longa; panicula 
condensa, 2.5 em. longa, purpurascens; glumae subaequales, 5-6 mm. longae, 
aristatae; lemma 3 mm. longum, 2-aristatum, aristis 0.5 mm. longis, e dorso 
medio aristam emittens, arista 2-geniculata, 1 em. longa, callo pubescente; 
palea nulla. 


Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,445,585, collected on wet 
ground, Sams Valley, a few miles from Gold Hill, Jackson County, Oregon, 
May 4, 1930, by L. F. Henderson (no. 12387). 


The specimen at hand has the aspect of a depauperate plant of Agrostis 
microphylla Steud., but differs in the longer awn and in the two setaceous 
teeth of the lmma. Only two plants were found by Professor Henderson 
and these may be depauperate specimens. The duplicate type is in the her- 
barium of the University of Oregon, Eugene. 


Calamagrostis stipitata Hitchc., sp. nov. 


Plant perennial, stramineous, rather soft; culms densely cespitose, erect, 
glabrous, 5 to 10 em. tall;,sheaths glabrous, scarious-margined, the upper- - 
most inflated, 3 to 5 mm. wide as folded; ligule membranaceous, acute, 5 to 
8 mm. long; blades erect, glabrous, involute, filiform, not more than 0.5 mm. 
thick, pungently pointed, mostly exceeding the culms; panicles condensed, 
1 to 3 em. long, tinged with purple or bronze, mostly partly included in the 
sheath, the axis and branchlets minutely hispid; spikelets 3.5 mm. long; 
glumes equal, acute, glabrous, scabrous on the keel, the tip somewhat erose; 
floret stipitate, the rachilla interncde about 0.5 mm. long; lemma 2 mm. 
long, the callus hairs copious, as long as the lemma, the apex with 4 rather 
stout teeth, the awn borne below the middle, straight or a little bent, slightly 
exceeding the glumes; palea a little shorter than the lemma; prolongation of 
ee rachilla about 0.5 mm. long, the rachilla hairs copious like the callus 

airs. 


Planta perennis, straminea; culmi dense caespitosi, erecti, 5-10 em. alti; 
ligula membranacea, acuta, 5-8 mm. longa; laminae erectae, graciles, in- 
volutae, glabrae, quam culmi paullo longiores; panicula condensa, 1-3 em. 
longa; spiculae 3.5 mm. longae; glumae acutae; floscula stipitata; lemma 2 
mm. longum, aristatum, arista recta glumas paullum superante, apice 4-den- 
tata, callo dense piloso, pilis 2 mm. longis; palea quam lemma paullo brevior; 
processus rhachillae 0.5 mm. longus, pilis 2 mm. longis. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,445,584, collected in gravel 
along a streamlet, Mina Desputada (Los Condes), Prov. Santiago, Chile, alt. 
4000 to 4100 meters, January, 1930, by G. Looser (no. 1114). 

Also collected in the Cordilleras of Colechaqua, Chile, January, 1930, by 
Padre Anastasio Pirion (no. 117). 


Stipa smithii Hitchc., sp. nov. 


Plant perennial; culms closely cespitose, erect, glabrous, usually 3-noded, 
about 60 cm. tall; sheaths glabrous; ligule a truncate membrane about 0.5 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 HITCHCOCK: FOUR NEW GRASSES 083 


mm. long: blades erect, rather loosely involute, glabrous on the outer surface, 
rather rigid, acuminate to a fine ‘hard point, 10 to 15 cm. long; panicle erect, 
narrow but searcely spikelike, interrupted below, 10 to 18 ecm. long, the 
branches appressed, the lower as much as 4 em. long, the main axis glabrous, 
the branches and pedicels pubescent; spikelets strongly tinged with purple; 
glumes equal, about 6 mm. long, 3-nerved, lanceolate, acuminate, sometimes 
sparingly pubescent near base; lemma 3 mm. long, including the acute callus 
about 0.5 mm. long, oblong, brownish, loosely pilose with white appressed 
hairs, the summit whitish, the margins of the lemma extended into minute 
lobes, the overlapping one indurate and forming a minute blunt tooth at the 
summit of the lemma; awn early-deciduous, twice-geniculate, sometimes 
obscurely so, scabrous, about 14 mm. long, the first segment twisted, about 
5 mm. long, the second segment like the first, 2 mm. long, the third segment 
straight, about 7 mm. long. 

Planta perennis; culmi caespitosi, erecti; laminae laxe involutae, glabrae, 
erectae, rigidae, 10-15 cm. longae; panicula erecta, angusta, 10-18 cm. longa, 
ramis appressis; spiculae purpurascentes; glumae acuminatae, 6 mm. longae, 
3-nervae, basi paullum pubescentes; lemma oblongum, pubescens, 3 mm. 
longum, apice minute dentato; arista 2-geniculata, scabra, inferne torta, 
circ. 14 mm. longa. 

Type in U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,357,804, collected on open hill- 
side, Rio Blanco, Dept. Lima, Peru, alt. 3000 to 3500 meters, April, 1929, 
by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 30669). 


Panicum killipii Hitche., sp. nov. 


Plant perennial: culms erect, sparingly branching, glabrous, solitary or few. 
in a tuft, 100 to 150 cm. tall; sheaths glabrous, sometimes tuberculate-hispid 
on the margins; ligule a membrane about 1 mm. long, the upper surface of 
the blade just above densely hispid; blades flat, narrowly lanceolate, acumi- 
nate, the upper rounded or somewhat cordate, the lower narrowed into a 
petiole-like folded base, glabrous beneath, the upper surface often sparsely 
beset along the nerves with tuberculate hairs or with tubercles only, minutely 
roughened along the margin especially toward the apex, 20 to 35 cm. long, 
2 to 3 cm. wide, the uppermost smaller; panicle erect, ovate-pyramidal in 
outline, 15 to 25 em. long, the axis glabrous on the lower part, scabrous 
above, the branches ascending or the lower spreading, solitary or 2 or 3 
together, the lower as much as 12 em. long, 1 to3 em. distant, the upper suc- 
cessively shorter and more crowded, sometimes a few long hairs in the axils, 
the spikelets short-pediceled, rather crowded and more or less secund on the 
primary branches, the lower branches sometimes again branching; spikelets 
purplish, glabrous, oval-oblong, obtuse, about 2 mm. long, single or in pairs 
on flat slightly scabrous pedicels, mostly shorter than the spikelets; first 
glume narrow, acute or acuminate, nerveless, from minute to nearly half as 
long as the spikelet; second glume and sterile lemma subequal, 5-nerved, the 
glume sometimes with a few delicate hairs at the summit; sterile floret 
staminate, with large anthers, the hyaline palea as long as the lemma; fruit 
as long as the spikelet, plano-convex, slightly apiculate, pale, smooth and 
shining. 

Planta perennis; culmi erecti, glabri, 100-150 em. alti; laminae planae, 
anguste lanceolatae, 20-35 em. longae, 2-3 cm. latae, acuminatae, superiores 
cordatae vel rotundatae, inferiores basilonge attenuatae, panicula pyramidalis, 


384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 15 


15-25 em. longa, ramis ascendentibus, inferioribus 7-12 em. longis; spiculae 
glabrae, ovato-oblongae, obtusae, 2 mm. longae, subsecundae, breviter 
pedicellatae; gluma prima, acuta, 0.5-1 mm. longa; gluma secunda et lemma 
sterile subaequales, 5-nervia; flos sterilis masculus, palea magna; lemma fer- 
tile paullum apiculatum. 


Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,357,803, collected in thickets, 
Aina, between Huanta and Rio Apurimac, Dept. Ayacucho, Peru, alt. 750 to 
1000 meters, May, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 22804). Also 
in the same locality, Killip & Smith 22522, 22803; Cearrapa, same region, 
Killip & Smith 22491. 

This plant is not closely allied to any known species. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


KNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


418TH MEETING 


The 418th regular meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington was 
held at 8 p.m. Thursday, March 6, 1930, in Room 43 of the new building of 
the U. S. National Museum. President J. E. Grar presided; there were 
present 37 members and 24 visitors. C. GRAHAM and F. F. Murpock were 
elected to membership. 

The first communication on the regular program was presented by Mr. O. 
E. Gaum, of the Bureau of Entomology, and was entitled ‘‘Insect Pests and 
Mites Related to the Mushroom Industry.” 


History, Development and Present Status of the Industry in the U. S. 


‘‘The mushroom industry is comparatively young and is perhaps one of the 
most centralized of its kind in this country, as nearly 80% of all the mush- 
rooms grown in the U. S. are raised in the southern halves of Chester and 
Delaware Counties, Pa., representing a radius of not more than 25 miles. 
The remaining 20% of our commercial production is scattered throughout 
several states, the principal ones being New York, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, 
Missouri, Minnesota, Colorado, Washington, Oregon, and California. 

The growth of the industry is rather unique in that commercial production 
began as a sideline with two greenhouse men at Kennett Square about 40 years 
ago. Since that time the industry has developed into a business representing 
a capital investment of over $10,000,000 for growing houses and equipment, 
the annual production of mushrooms in Pennsylvania being about 15,000,000 
pounds and having a total value of over $5,000,000. 


The Industry in New York State—Adaptation of Ice Houses 


While the bulk of the crop is grown in specially constructed houses, there 
have been a few adaptations whereby certain buildings and caves are now 
being used for the culture of mushrooms. One of the most noted of these 
adaptations is found in New York State where the largest mushroom plant in 
the world exists today. This plant consists of several abandoned ice houses 
along the Hudson River, from Kingston to Albany, which have been converted 
into mushroom houses and comprise a total of about 1,500,000 sq. ft. of bed 


~ 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY O80 


space for the growing of mushrooms. In reconditioning these houses, the 
floors were cemented and a false ceiling 8 feet from the floor was made by 
fastening a network of twine string to strong twine supports or ropes sus- 
pended from the rafters, and then covering the twine network with 3 to 5 ply 
of building paper. From 4 to 5 carloads of building paper are used each season 
in making these false ceilings. Knock-down type construction beds were 
made of California spruce, which are 4 tiers high. Large removable doorways 
were made in the side of the houses which permit the trucks to haul the manure 
directly into and out of the houses. This company has a standing order with 
the manure dealers in New York City for over 10,000 tons of horse manure 
each year. All this manure is brought up the Hudson River on barges and 
unloaded with cranes into motor trucks which haul it directly into the ice 
houses where it is composted. Most of the labor involved in composting and 
turning of the manure is done by special machinery. ‘The spent compost is 
loaded into trucks, dumped on barges and shipped South. 

Six of these large ice houses are equipped for use in the summer. Large, 
well insulated rooms were constructed in the center of the ice house proper, in 
which 6,000 to 10,000 tons of ice are stored in the winter and used in summer 
for cooling. When the temperature rises above the optimum for mushroom 
culture, slide doors in the ice chamber are opened and the cool air is forced 
out into the plant by means of electric fans. 

The growers in the ice houses estimated their production for the summer of 
1929 to be around 145,000 three-pound baskets of mushrooms. 

There are also some large limestone caves in New York State where mush- 
rooms are grown the year round, but climatic conditions are not as favorable 
for successful culture of mushrooms in the caves as in the reconditioned ice 
houses. 

Industry in the Northwest 


The industry in the Northwest is centered around the twin cities, Minne- 
apolis and St. Paul, where between 300,000 and 400,000 pounds of mushrooms 
are. grown annually in the sandstone caves or mines along the banks of the 
Mississippi River, which have been mined out for the extremely high grade 
sand used for manufacture of glass. Some of these mines are enormous in 
size, being from 300 to 400 feet long, 30 feet high and 30 feet wide. The 
temperature remains fairly constant the year round and affords a favorable 
place for the culture of mushrooms. There are, however, some hazardous 
factors which enter into the culture in these sandstone caves, which will be 
mentioned later. 

The industry has gradually spread westward and at the present time there 
_ are large mushroom plants at San Francisco, Whittier and Redwood City, 

California, and at Denver, Colorado. Plants are in the process of construc- 
tion at Seattle, Washington, and at Portland, Oregon. The annual produc- 
tion of mushrooms on the West Coast is approximately 1,000,000 pounds. 


Insect Pests and Mites Associated with Mushroom Culture 


It seems as though the insect pests and mites have kept pace with the 
growth of the industry, and as the industry became more centralized, the flies 
flew from one house to another and in many instances carried the mite hypopi 
with them. The chief insect pests found in the commercial mushroom houses 
are the Sciarid, Phorid and Cecid flies, springtails and sowbugs. The in- 
jurious mites include the so-called mushroom mite Tyroglyphus lintner?, 


386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 15 


Rhizoglyphus phylloxerae and Linopodes antennaepes. The Sciarid larvae do 
considerable injury by destroying the mycelium in the beds and also by 
feeding on the small mushrooms which they completely devour in many 
instances. They are also productive of commercial damage to the larger 
sporophores which are rendered unfit for the market when the larvae tunnel 
up into the stem and cap. The Phorid larvae are often quite numerous in 
the compost but do not cause the damage which the Sciarid larvae are capable 
of producing. The writer has not yet found any of the Phorid larvae up in the 
stem or cap of the mushroom. The larvae of the Cecid fly also produce in- 
jury by burrowing into the cap as well as the damage which they cause by 
destroying the mycelium in the beds. The flies being vectors of disease are 
also serious pests of the mushroom industry in this connection. 

Springtails cause very little damage to mushrooms in the East, but are 
however one of the most serious pests which the growers in the sandstone 
caves of the Northwest have to contend with. While the species found in 
the sandstone caves has never been described in the United States, I doubt 
very much whether it would cause commercial damage in the modern con- 
structed houses in the East due to unfavorable climatic conditions for their 
reproduction. 

Mites have become one of the major pests of cultivated mushrooms and 
are capable of producing considerable injury to the crop. The one most 
commonly found is the so-called mushroom mite Tyroglyphus lintnerit. Rhizo- 
glyphus phylloxerae which resembles Tyroglyphus lininerz is also quite prev- 
alent. These mites are very destructive to the mycelium and also render 
many of the sporophores unfit for market by eating into the stem and cap. 
Many of the plants in Pennsylvania were infested with this mite this season, 
and one plant in Ohio comprising 91,000 sq. ft. of bed space was heavily in- 
fested and approximately $10,000 worth of damage produced. 

Another mite, Linopodes antennaepes, a new pest of mushrooms in this 
country, apparently made its appearance in one of the commercial houses in 
Pennsylvania last March and was found during the summer of 1929 in 
mushroom houses at Ashtabula, Ohio, Naperville, Illinois, and in one of the 
sandstone caves at St. Paul, Minnesota. 

The yield was reduced about 40% in the plant at Ashtabula, Ohio, which 
consisted of 375,000 sq. ft. of bed space. Control of this mite was received by 
passing steam over the surface of the manure after the last turning and before 
it was taken into the houses. 


Control Measures 


There exists in the preparation of the compost for mushroom culture a 
natural means of insect and mite control, which if properly utilized would aid 
materially in reducing heavy insect and mite infestations. The compost 
usually undergoes a secondary fermentation process after it is put into the 
house during which period the temperature in the compost in the top bed 
rises to the point where all insect and mite life present in the manure is either 
killed or driven to the surface of the bed, where fumigants can be used effec- 
tively. The temperature of the compost in the bottom beds seldom rises 
above 110 to 115°F. and does not go this high in most cases if beds are built 
on the ground. The temperature in the bottom beds being low, the insects 
are neither killed nor driven to the surface where fumigants can be used 
effectively, and hence these beds serve as breeding grounds or sources of 
pollution for the whole house. 


SEPTEMBER 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY O87 


Preliminary tests with electric fans to break up the dead air space and 
circulate the air have every indication of being both practical and profitable 
for this purpose. Three 16-inch oscillating electric fans placed in a single 
mushroom house, 50 ft. long, with the face of the fan pointed upward at an 
angle of 45° will circulate the air very well. By this means we have been 
able to get the air temperature in the bottom of the houses the same as it was 
in the top of the houses; and where the bottom beds are raised off the ground 
to get the temperature of the compost within 2° of the compost temperature 
in the top beds. In using fans, they should not be started until the tempera- 
ture of the compost in the top beds has reached 125 to 130°F. The fans not 
only equalize the temperatures, thereby either killing the insects in the manure 
or driving them to the surface where fumigants can be used effectively; but 
also serve as a means whereby the house can be left closed for a longer period 
of time without danger of burning the manure in the top beds. 


Precautionary Measures 


Due to the fact that some of the mushroom pests are almost invariably 
present in the compost when it enters the mushroom house, it is necessary to 
take certain precautions while the compost is going through its secondary 
decomposition process to prevent heavy infestations of flies and mites. 
Calcium cyanide has been recommended and used when the compost was at 
its peak heat for the control of insect pests and mites in the compost. It is 
scattered in the aisles at the rate of one pound per 1,000 cu. ft. of air space 
in the mushroom house. Results of aspiration experiments conducted in 
the mushroom house under practical conditions show that the gas is liberated 
very quickly, the maximum concentration being received at the time of the 
first aspiration, which was made 15 minutes after the calcium cyanide had 
been scattered in the aisles. Starch papers dipped in picric acid were inserted 
in the compost to determine the depth to which the hydrocyanic acid gas 
penetrated. These tests showed that the gas did not penetrate into the 
compost more than one inch; hence the necessity of driving the insects and 
mites to the surface. Due to the fact that hydrocyanic acid gas does not 
seem to be as effective on mite hypopi as sulfur dioxide several experiments 
were conducted in the mushroom houses in Pennsylvania during the fall of 
1929 whereby sulfur was burned in the houses at the rate of 1 to 3 pounds per 
1,000 cu. ft. of air space when the compost was at peak heat. pH determina- 
tions of the compost were made before and after the sulfur was burned. Re- 
sults of several determinations showed that the pH of the compost on the 
surface changed from about 7.5 to about 6.5, or roughly one point, while the 
pH of the compost from the center of the bed remained unchanged showing 
that the sulfur fumes did not penetrate far into the compost. A greenish 
mold developed on the surface of the compost after the house had been cooled 
down, but apparently dried up before the beds were cased and did no harm. 
Yield tests from several of the houses in which sulfur was burned showed 
normal crops. While there is a slight fire hazard in using sulfur for fumiga- 
tion at this time, it is much cheaper and apparently a better miticide than 
hydrocyanic acid gas. 

Results of preliminary tests with ethylene oxide indicate that it is very 
effective against mites, but further experiments as to its effect on the mush- 
room and mycelium will have to be made before it can be tried on a commercial 
scale in the mushroom houses. It is a very penetrating gas, having killed 
mites which were buried in compost at a depth of 3 inches when used at the 


388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 15 


rate of 1 pound per 1,000 cu. ft. of air space. Due to the extreme sensitivity 
of the mushroom and of the mycelium, very few fumigants can be used while 
a crop ison the beds. Pyrethrum powder is the most extensively used insecti- 
cide for control of flies during the cropping period. A 100% active pyrethrum 
dust was used until the fall of 1929. It was too heavy and did not remain 
in suspension Jong enough for most effeetive results. A 60-40 pyrethrum 
diatomaceous earth combination is now being used in considerable quantity 
and has proven more effective than the 100% active pyrethrum dust. The 
new dust not only remains in suspension longer thereby becoming more 
effective than the heavier dust but is also about 25¢ per pound cheaper than 
the 100% material. Nicotine smudges as well as a special pyrethrum smudge 
do not seem to be toxic enough to afford effective results. 

All spent compost as well as left over compost should be disposed of as 
quickly as possible and the doors and ventilators pf the mushroom house 
screened with 30-mesh copper wire cloth, to prevent reinfestation once a 
house has gone through the heat and has been fumigated. Cheesecloth can 
be used to screen the doors and ventilators but copper wire clothismore dura- 
ble and perhaps the cheapest in the longrun. (Author’s abstract.) 

A number of slides were shown. This paper was discussed by McInpoo, 
GraF, BisHopp, Howarp BALDUuF, and BRIDWELL. 


(To be continued.) 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Mrs. AGNES CHASE, of the Grass Herbarium, has returned from 7 months 
in Brazil. On this, her second visit to Brazil, Mrs. Chase collected grasses 
in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, Minas Geraes, Goyaz, Sao 
Paulo, and Matto Grosso, going west to the boundary of Bolivia and south 
to near the boundary of Paraguay. In the two visits Mrs. Chase has made 
the largest collection of grasses ever obtained in Brazil, including many exten- 
sions of range and additions to the known flora of the country. 


Dr. A. 8. Hircucock sailed for Europe August 1, to attend the Interna- 
tional Botanical Congress at Cambridge, England. Dr. Hitchcock attends 
the Congress as delegate from the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, the 
Botanical Society of America and the Botanical Society of Washington. 


R. C. Wxtts has been appointed chief chemist in charge of the Division 
of Chemistry and Physics, Geologic Branch, U. 8S. Geological Survey, and 
GEORGE STEIGER, former chief, will return to studies in chemical and spec- 
troscopic analysis. 


EUGENE CALLAGHAN, Perry A. Davison, Epwin B. EckreL, CHARLES 
L. Gazin, E. N. Gopparp, CHArLEs B. Hunt, BERNARD N. Moort, Watson 
H. Monros, CHarues F. Park, Jr., WiuuiamM 8. PIKE, JR., GrorGE F. 
TayLor, and AARON G. Waters have been appointed junior geologists; and 
Luoyp G. Henzest, J. HARLAN JoHNSON, MaxweELu M. KNEcCHTEL, ALBERT 
H. KoscHMANN, RoBert E. LANpDoN, CHARLES B. Reap, Puruip J. SHENON, 
RaupH B. Stewart, and J. SteELE WILLIAMS, assistant geologists in the 
Geologic Branch, U. 8. Geological Survey. RateH W. RicHarps has been 
reinstated as Geologist. 


OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS 


THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND 
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this pace if 
sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month. 


OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


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Corresponding Secretary: L. B. TuckeRMAN, Bureau of Standards. 
Recording Secretary: CHARLES Tom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. 
Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 















CONTENTS 
ORIGINAL Parers “i aN 


THOM ae KENNETH B. Ratan a ee 


Paleontology.—Discovery of Permo-Carboniferous vertebrates in the D 
mation of West hocks ae R,: W. WHIPPLE and E. C. Case. ates A 


ELLSwORTH Pe. ee et eee 
Botany.—Four new grasses. A. S. FUROR SOUR. 02 5 5s ores eee 


4 


" Paocenpiscs 25, eee: 


The Entomological Society 25 Petes ces ee. ee 


ScIENTIFIC NOTES AND Niwa dct ue ee 


— ~ 
i 
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G de 
Ln a 
en 
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sid ~ me . 
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OcTOBER 4, 1930 No. 16 





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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Vou. 20 OcToBER 4, 1930 No. 16 


GEOLOGY .—Pleistocene seashores.! C. WytTHE Cooke, U.S. Geologi- 
cal Survey. 

The Pleistocene terraces of the Atlantic seaboard have excited the 
interest of many geologists. The name Columbia was applied to 
some of them by McGee in 1887. Darton described them in the 
Washington Folio. Shattuck, who was the first to study them in 
detail, published on the Maryland terraces in 1901. 3B. L. Johnson 
and Stephenson worked out the series in North Carolina; Matson, in 
Florida; Cooke, in Georgia; and Wentworth, whose results are still 
unpublished, in Virginia. All of these students reached the conclu- 
sion that some or all of the terraces are due wholly or in part to in- 
vasions of the sea or tidal waters upon the land. Shattuck proved 
that the terraces in Maryland were not produced by simple intermit- 
tent emergence from the sea but by alternating emergence and sub- 
mergence, which he ascribed to oscillations of the land. 

If the invasions and retreats of the sea are really due to oscillations 
of the land, the terraces ought to be warped or tilted, for it seems very 
unlikely that two thousand miles of sea coast should have been rigidly 
upheaved and depressed not once, but several times, without warping 
or tilting. 

My work in 1924 on the physical geography of Georgia convinced 
me that the terraces there are not warped, but maintain their horizon- 
tality within the State of Georgia. In that investigation I applied a 
method, frequently neglected, of defining marine terraces by refer- 
ence to the abandoned shore lines which bound them. The method of 

1 Received May 26, 1930. Read before the Geological Society of Washington May 
14,1930. Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. The 
subject matter of the first part of this paper is discussed more fully and with references 


in a manuscript entitled Correlation of coastal terraces, to be published in the Journal 
of Geology. 


389 


390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


correlating terraces by means of the altitude of the terrace itself is un- 
reliable, for altitudes of points on a terrace vary considerably, like 
soundings in the sea; but the abandoned shore line is a definite plane 
of reference, like modern sea level. Slopes due to warping of a ter- 
race cannot with certainty be distinguished from the original slopes 
of the old sea bottom; but sloping shore lines usually indicate warp- 
ing. It is obvious, however, that considerable discrimination is neces- 
sary in deciding what part of an abandoned beach represents the former 
stand of mean sea level, for tidal range, strength of winds and waves, 
and many other factors affect the profiles of beaches. 

I have recently traced on topographic maps the shore lines of the 
coastal terraces both north and south of Georgia but have detected no 
evidence of warping. ‘The shore lines maintain their horizontality 
from Florida at least as far north as New Jersey, and appear to con- 
tinue unchanged in altitude, but doubtless veneered with glacial de- 
posits, up the Hudson and Connecticut valleys. The few maps avail- 
able along the Gulf coast show terraces at the same altitudes as far as 
Texas. As the terraces appear to be unwarped for a distance of 2000 
miles, I infer that the horizontal shore lines of the Pleistocene terraces 
record high stages of the sea on a stable land and not upheavals of the 
continent. 

If the sea once stood high on the Atlantic coast of North America, 
it must have stood equally high on every coast, and traces of its marks, 
where not obliterated, should stand at the same altitudes on every 
stable land. ‘The shore lines of the Pleistocene terraces stand approxi- 
mately 25, 65, 95, 160, 215, and 265 feet above sea level. Although I 
have not attempted an exhaustive survey of the literature, evidence 
that terraces stand at approximately these same altitudes in many 
countries is accumulating. Daly has shown that the 25-foot level is 
world wide. Depéret assigns terraces on all three coasts of France 
to horizontal shore lines at very nearly the same altitudes as ours, and 
Dubois has ventured to correlate the French terraces with the Ameri- 
can on the basis of their altitudes. The correspondence with South 
Africa is remarkably close, for Krige reports well-developed marine 
terraces 20 and 60 feet above sea level, a beach about 100 feet, a 170- 
foot shelf at Cape of Good Hope, another at 200 feet, and another 
about 250 feet above sea level. Four of these levels in South Africa 
differ by only 5 feet from the altitudes that I have assigned to shore 
lines in the United States, one is ten feet higher, and two are 15 feet 
lower than mine. These differences fall well within the range of 
possible error of the method of work. The 10 and 15-foot differences 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 COOKE: PLEISTOCENE SEASHORES 391 


are between shore lines in America and shelves in South Africa. The 
correspondence of the actual shore lines may be closer, for P. A. 
Wagner reports marine gravel 210 feet above sea level at the mouth 
of the Buffels River.? 

What made the sea fall and rise at least six times, as recorded by the 
shore lines of the terraces? Glacial control of sea level seems to be the 
most effective cause of this periodic shifting of the strand during the 
Pleistocene. When the great ice caps accumulated on the land during 
each glacial stage, there was less water in the sea than when the ice 
caps were melted and the water restored to the sea during each inter- 
glacial stage. It has been estimated that if the ice caps on Greenland 
and on Antarctica were melted, the sea would be raised 200 feet above 
its present level. This estimated height falls short by less than 25 
per cent of the actual rise of the sea needed to submerge the land to 
the 265-foot shore line. It is quite possible that crustal movements as 
well as glaciation caused changes in sea level during the Pleistocene. 
If the change due to crustal movements was downward, we need not 
resort to the hypothesis of unequal deglaciation to explain the step- 
like arrangement of the terraces. But in any event the changes of 
sea level due to glaciation alone are of too great magnitude to be 
ignored. 

Geologists recognize five times of conspicuous Pleistocene glacia- 
tion in North America. These are called the Nebraskan, Kansan, 
Illinoian, Iowan, and Wisconsin glacial stages. The Wisconsin glacial 
stage was interrupted by at least one temporary retreat of the ice. 
These six glacial stages (counting the Wisconsin as two) alternate 
with six warmer periods, namely, the preglacial stage, and the Afton- 
ian, the Yarmouth, the Sangamon, and the Peorian interglacial stages, 
and an inter-Wisconsin interglacial substage. 

Let us assume that glacial control was the dominant cause of changes 
of sea level. ‘Then each interglacial stage, being a time of high sea 
water, should have a corresponding high shore line, but the deposits 
that accumulated in the sea during each glacial stage should now be 
submerged. Let usfurther assume that these terraces stand in regular 
sequence as to age, the highest being the oldest, and the lowest the 
youngest. ‘Then it may be possible to assign each of the six Pleisto- 
cene terraces to a definite stage of the glacial chronology. The 265- 
foot shore line, corresponding to the typical Brandywine terrace, falls 
into the pre-glacial stage; the 215-foot Coharie level into the Aftonian; 


2 Trans. Geol. Soc. South Africa 31: 11. 1928. 


392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 16 


the 160-foot Sunderland into the Yarmouth; the 95-foot Wicomico 
into the Sangamon; the 65-foot Chowan into the Peorian; and the 25- 
foot Pamlico into the inter-Wisconsin. 

The discovery of any more Pleistocene shore lines or the recognition 
of any more stages in the glacial chronology would throw this ten- 
tative correlation of the Pleistocene marine terraces with the inter- 
glacial stages out of step, and the correlation would need readjustment. 
That there may be more shore lines than the six already mentioned is 
not improbable; Wentworth, in manuscript, reports one in Virginia 
about 15 feet above sea level; in the District of Columbia there are at 
least 2 levels higher than 265 feet, and the lower of the two seems to 
be wide spread. But there may also be more interglacial stages than 
are now formally recognized, for the Wisconsin glacial deposits record 
4 separate advances of the ice which were interrupted by retreats of 
greater or less magnitude. As a tie point between the two shifting 
scales is the discovery by Leverett that a gravel train derived from the 
Illinoian drift can be traced down the Susquehanna River to the head 
of Chesapeake Bay, where it ends in the marine Wicomico formation. 
If the Wicomico is Sangamon, as postulated here, it is the oldest ma- 
rine formation now above sea level in which debris from the Illinois 
drift could possibly occur. 

Although the coastal terraces show no conspicuous signs of warping, 
there is abundant evidence that the Atlantic seaboard has been de- 
formed in the not-far-distant past. The streams have been unequally 
drowned. Every stream has been drowned to some extent, but those 
north of Cape Hatteras have been drowned deeper than those farther 
south. Examination of hydrographic charts brings out the fact that 
Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries have not been drowned as deeply 
as the submarine course of Hudson River. Further evidence of rather 
late deformation of the eastern part of the United States is given by 
the attitude of Pliocene deposits. Shaw found considerable warping 
of Pliocene terraces in Mississippi; Florida has been tilted to the west 
since the deposition of the Pliocene Citronelle formation; Campbell 
reports that the Pliocene (?) Bryn Mawr gravel has been deformed. 
The ending of the period of crustal instability which deformed Pliocene 
deposits but which did not deform Pleistocene terraces in the same re- 
gion is a convenient time at which to date the close of the Pliocene and 
the beginning of the Pleistocene. 


Let us now apply these principles of correlation to our local con- 
ditions and attempt to interpret the geologic history of the District of 
Columbia. 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 COOKE: PLEISTOCENE SEASHORES 393 


During Pliocene time a large alluvial fan or delta accumulated on the 
Coastal Plain and lower parts of the Piedmont where the Potomac 
emerged from the higher land. Later, the margin of the continent was 
uplifted to such an extent that the seashore lay along or below the 
edge of the continental shelf. This uplift of the land may have taken 
place by stages sufficiently distinct to cut terraces in the Pliocene 
delta of the Potomac. During this high stand of the continental mar- 
gin, the valleys now occupied by Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, 
and the submarine valley of the Hudson were eroded. We may pic- 
ture the Potomac River of late Pliocene time as very similar to the pres- 
ent river from its headwaters to Little Falls. At Little Falls it prob- 
ably dropped as much as 60 feet. From Georgetown to its junction 
with the Susquehanna it was a normal Coastal Plain river—deep, 
fairly rapid but with no falls—flowing in a broad valley between gravel- 
capped uplands. 

Then came a time of widespread crustal instability. The conti- 
nental margin between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras was depressed, 
the greatest depression being near the submarine channel of the Hud- 
son. When this movement ceased the Pleistocene epoch had begun. 

Since the beginning of the Pleistocene the land has remained sta- 
tionary but the sea has fallen and risen upon it. The opening of the 
Pleistocene finds the sea at a height of 265 feet above its present level. 
Nearly all the Coastal Plain in this vicinity was submerged except an 
island covered with Pliocene gravel which rose 40 feet above the water 
southeast of Washington. Tides extended up the Potomac almost to 
Harpers Ferry. The Brandywine terrace was formed at this time. 
The flat-topped ridge southeast of Baileys Crossroads is a remnant of 
the Brandywine terrace. 

Then came the Nebraskan glaciation; the tidal waters receded and © 
the Potomac reoccupied its Pliocene channel. 

After the Nebraskan ice had melted the Aftonian sea stood 215 
feet above modern sea level. Tide probably extended up the Potomac 
to Point of Rocks. At Georgetown the river broadened and emptied 
into a bay about 7 miles wide with a prolongation extending north- 
eastward towards Laurel. The Coharie terrace was formed at this 
time. Mt. Pleasant and Meridian Hill Park are on the Coharie 
terrace. 

The waters receded during the Kansan glacial stage but readvanced 
during Yarmouth time to the 160-foot level. Tide reached above the 
dam at Great Falls. All of Washington below Florida Avenue was 
again under water, but the northeastern prolongation of Potomac 


394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


Bay was considerably smaller than its earlier stage. The Sunderland 
terrace was formed at this time. The shore line of the Sunderland 
terrace follows the bluff north of Florida Avenue between Eleventh 
Street and Connecticut Avenue. 

During the Illinoian glacial stage the seas were again depleted and 
tidal waters drained away down the Pliocene course of the Potomac. 
When the ice had melted during the Sangamon interglacial stage, tides 
rose only about 95 feet above present sea level and extended up the 
Potomac only to the foot of Great Falls. Down-town Washington was 
again under water and Potomac Bay was not greatly altered. The 
terrace corresponding to the 95-foot stage is the Wicomico. Capitol 
Hill is an outlier of the Wicomico, and Dupont Circle, Scott Circle, 
Thomas Circle, and Iowa Circle are on the same terrace. 

After the low water of the Iowan glacial stage, the water rose in 
Peorian time to an altitude of only 65 feet. Tides extended to the 
head of Stubblefield Falls and up the Eastern Branch to Berwyn. 
Capitol Hill made an island in Potomac Bay. The Chowan terrace 
was formed at this time. F and G streets, Lafayette Square, and 
Union Station Plaza are on the Chowan terrace. 

Sea level fell in early Wisconsin time, but during the inter-Wisconsin 
retreat of the ice it rose again to an altitude of about 25 feet. At this 
time the Pamlico terrace was formed. ‘Tides were stopped by Little 
Falls. Pennsylvania Avenue between Peace Monument and Fifteenth 
Street was flooded, and most of Southwest Washington except an island 
at the Department of Agriculture site was under water. 

Late Wisconsin glaciation again lowered sea level, but at the be- 
ginning of the Recent epoch the water attained its present stage. 
Tides now extend to Little Falls and up the Eastern Branch to 
Bladensburg. 


SUMMARY 


The important conclusions of this paper are as follows: 

The shore lines of the six Pleistocene terraces are horizontal as far 
as they have been traced. Horizontal terraces at the same altitudes 
have been noted in France and in South Africa. The shore lines are 
therefore interpreted as high-water marks made by a fluctuating sea 
upon stationary continents rather than as marks of a stationary sea 
made upon oscillating continents. 

Glacial control of sea level is regarded as the dominant cause of the 
fluctuations of sea level during the Pleistocene epoch. Sea level 
was high during interglacial stages and low during glacial stages. The 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 CUSHMAN: FORAMINIFERA AND ALGAE 395 


shore lines of the terraces therefore represent the high-water marks of 
the preglacial and interglacial stages. 

The warping of the continent which brought about the unequal 
drowning of the Atlantic coast deformed Pliocene deposits but did not 
deform Pleistocene shore lines. It is therefore regarded as the closing 
episode of Pliocene time. 


BIOLOGY .—The interrelation of Foraminifera and Algae! JosmpH A. 
CusHMAN, Sharon, Massachusetts. 


The relationship of the Foraminifera and Algae has already been 
noted.2 It has been well known for some time, too, that there is an 
association of Algae with Corals. In tropical, warm, shallow waters, 
such as give the right conditions for the development of coral reefs, 
there are found several groups of larger Foraminifera. For the most 
part these are limited to such conditions, and are known only from 
the tropics, most of them from the Indo-Pacific. These include 
particularly the families Camerinidae, Peneropliidae, and Alveolinel- 
lidae. Just what the relationship is between the two forms of the 
Foraminifera and the Algae is not yet clear. It may be due to food 
relations, or to the development of oxygen by the Algae. ‘That the 
relationship is a very definite one is shown by the fact that distribution 
of these larger Foraminifera is limited to a depth of about 30 fathoms. 
This depth is approximately that to which Algae are limited by the 
amount of sunlight that penetrates the sea-water. It is probable that 
when the relationships between Algae and Corals are fully known the 
same factors will apply to the Algae and the Foraminifera. 

In the fossil series larger Foraminifera of the families already men- 
tioned and those belonging to the extinct group of the Orbitoids are 
very prominent from the later Cretaceous, and representatives of the 
earlier groups except the Orbitoids are still living under the conditions 
already noted. A map of the distribution of the Orbitoids, for ex- 
ample, in the Eocene will show that they are very largely limited to 
areas which at that time from the occurrence of Corals and other 
forms are known to have been warm shallow areas. During this 
period great masses of limestone many thousands of feet thick were 
developed across the tropical regions of the world in large part built 


1 Received June 23, 1930. 

2 CusHMaN, Shallow water Foraminifera of the Tortugas Region, Publication Carnegie 
Institution, Washington, 311: 10. 1922; Observation onliving specimens of Iridia diaphana, 
a species of Foraminifera, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 57: 154, 1920. 


396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


up of such Foraminifera. ‘These same areas parallel very closely the 
distribution of Tertiary oil fields, and it is at least suggestive that 
there may be a relationship between the two. 

This relationship of the Algae and the Foraminifera might well 
furnish an interesting problem for research, either from an economic 
or purely scientific point of view. So far as observations have been 
made, both green and brown Algae can assume this relationship with 
the Foraminifera, usually unicellular forms showing this relationship. 
These often give a definite color to the living Foraminifera which is 
not seen at all in the dried material. 


BOTAN Y.—A new cannon-ball tree from Panama. By C. V. Morton, 
National Museum. (Communicated by Witu1am R. Maxon). 


Included among the plants of a recent collection made by Dr. A. F. 
Skutch in the vicinity of Almirante, Panama, and generously presented 
by him to the U.S. National Museum is a specimen of cannon-ball tree 
(Couroupita), which critical study shows to represent a new species, 
as suspected by Doctor Skutch in the field. It is described herewith, 
the specific name being in honor of Mr. Victor M. Cutter, President of 
the United Fruit Company, in recognition of generous support of many 
projects relating to tropical American botany. 


Couroupita cutteri Morton & Skutch, sp. nov. 


Very tall tree with widely spreading branches; branchlets glabrous, con- 
spicuously marked with leaf scars; leaves clustered at the ends of the branch- 
lets, alternate, nonpunctate, deciduous at flowering time; petiole short, about 
10-12 mm. long, pubescent; lamina oblanceolate, 13-21 cm. long, very ob- 
tuse at apex, cuneate at base, minutely denticulate, glabrous, except in the 
axils of the veins beneath; secondary veins 16-18, conspicuously raised be- 
neath; inflorescence paniculate, arising from the trunk and main branches, 
up to 50 cm. long; calyx of 6 sepals, 6 mm. long, 7.5 mm. broad, broadly 
rounded at apex, fleshy, thinner at margin, ciliolate; petals oblong, very fleshy, 
4-4.5 em. long, 3-3.5 em. broad, greenish white outside, cream color within, 
ciliolate; androphore cream color, basal ring 17-18 mm. in diameter, the ring 
and the inner surface of the hood completely covered with fertile stamens; 
filaments of the basal ring clavate, 1 mm. long, those of the hood more elon- 
gate (about 3.5 mm.); anther cells divaricate at base; ovary 6-celled; fruit _ 
not seen. 


Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,409,624, collected in a pasture 
near base line, 15 miles from Almirante, Panama, in May, 1929, by A. F. 
Skutch (no. 19). Alcoholic specimens of the flowers are also preserved. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
June 16, 1930. 


397 


NEW CANNON-BALL TREE 


MORTON 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 





Fig. 1. Couroupita cutteri, sp. nov. 


398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 16 


The cannon-ball trees are apparently very rare in Central America. The 
present species and the recently described C. parviflora Standl. bring the 
known number up to five, all represented by very few collections. Of these 
C. cutteri is the largest-flowered and probably also the tallest. It is most 
closely related to C. darienensis Pittier, which has short racemes arising from 
the smaller branches, instead of panicles arising from the trunk. C. darienen- 
sts has, moreover, pinkish rather than cream colored flowers, which also are 
rather smaller. 

The illustration is from a photograph of the tree from which the specimens 
were later taken. When photographed (March 8, 1929) it was not in flower. 


BOTANY.—Some new species of Pythium.! CHARLES DRECHSLER, 
U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 


Although the fungi to be described herein are all referable to Pyth- 
ium in the broader sense in which that genus has generally been 
understood, they include members of groups rather diverse in their 
more intimately distinctive morphological tendencies. Pythiwm dts- 
sotocum in its small degree of outward sporangial differentiation, ap- 
proximates more closely than any of the others the condition described 
by Pringsheim (9) for P. monospermum Pringsh., which with the sub- 
sequent transfer of his P. entophytum to Lagenidium, remains as the 
obvious type of the genus. It therefore also comes closer than any 
of the others in conforming to the requirements for Schréter’s (10) 
definition of his genus Nematosporangium which stipulates filamentous 
sporangia not wider than the mycelial hyphae. That in the choice 
of the generic name the one introduced in its present meaning by 
Pringsheim (9) was adopted, is to be attributed, however, less to the 
production by the fungus of slightly swollen dactyloid elements evi- 
dently essentially sporangial in nature, than to the unsoundness of 
Schroter’s dispositions historically. For whatever may have been 
the propriety of Pringsheim’s followers in bringing forms differing 
considerably from P. monospermum into the same fold, and whatever 
the utility of Fischer’s (5) subdivision of the enlarged genus into three 
subgenera, there can be little doubt that SchrGter’s elevation to generic 
rank of the one of these subgenera to which had been assigned the 
very species that had originally formed the basis of the genus Pythium, © 
was flagrantly in contravention of nomenclatorial stability. Nor ap- 
parently have the ill-advised dispositions of Schréter been sanctioned 
by use, as most authors of the past four decades have continued to 


1 Received July 15, 1930. 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 DRECHSLER: NEW SPECIES OF PYTHIUM 399 


include species having other than subspherical sporangia among the 
members of the older genus. 

In Pythium perulum and P. myriotylum are represented departures 
from the outwardly completely undifferentiated filamentous form of 
sporangium demanded by Schréter’s definition of Nematosporangium 
wider than in P. dissotocum, as in these two fungi swollen lobulate 
elements occur more freely and constitute a larger proportion of the 
volume of the parts concerned in asexual reproduction. In P. peri- 
plocum the sporangia consist very largely of moriform aggregations of 
lobulate elements in comparison with which the undifferentiated myce- 
lial parts are often altogether insignificant in volume. Assignment of 
a fungus having a sporangium consisting of distended elements in 
intricate arrangement to a genus of which the chief distinctive feature 
is by definition a filamentous sporangium not wider than the mycelial 
hyphae would seem rather obviously out of question. 

The sporangia of Pythiwm paroecandrum and of P. salpingophorum 
are of typically subspherical form, those of the former species resem- 
bling in general the sporangia of P.debaryanum Hesse, while those of the 
latter are noteworthy mainly because of the conspicuous distal widen- 
ing of their individual evacuation tubes. ‘The sporangia of P. acan- 
thicum and P. oligandrum likewise are often simply subspherical, but 
frequently, again, a filamentous part of varying length is included, or 
more especially in P. oligandrum, several subspherical elements com- 
municate by connecting portions of filament, so that structures more 
or less transitional between subspherical and filamentous sporangia . 
and between subspherical and lobulate sporangia, respectively, are 
brought about. 

The sexual apparatus of Pythium dissotocum invites comparison with 
that of P. debaryanum inasmuch as it exhibits monoclinous antheridia 
both in proximate and in more distant mycelial relationship to the 
oogonium, while the regularly proximate origin of the monoclinous 
antheridia of P. paroecandrum provides a parallelism with P. ultimwm 
Trow. In P. periilum the antheridia and the branching filaments 
supporting them are wrapped extensively and intimately about the 
oogonium in a manner suggestive of various species of Aphanomyces. 
Envelopment of the oogonium is effected also in P. myriotylum, 
though usually less extensively than in P. periilum, and never quite as 
intimately. However, the oogonia of P. periplocum are invested often 
fully as extensively as those of P. pervilum, owing here, to be sure, more 
to the rangy lobate antheridia spreading over the female organ as 
closely as the spiny configuration permits, than to the rather moder- 


400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


ately developed antheridial branches creeping closely between the 
spines. 

The frequently somewhat lobate shape of the antheridium, the longi- 
tudinal application of the male organ to the oogonium, and the creep- 
ing of the antheridial stalk between the spiny protuberances of the 
female organ, prevalent in P. oligandrum, are indicative of a somewhat 
close relationship to P. periplocum, which, it may be admitted, the 
frequent parthenogenesis and the simpler construction of sporangium 
distinctive of the former species do little to sustain. A certain degree . 
of relationship to P. periplocum is evidenced also by P. acanthicum 
in the production of a frequently lobate antheridium and its applica- 
tion lengthwise to the spiny oogonium. Accordingly, P. periplocum, 
P. oligandrum and P. acanthicum might perhaps well be regarded as 
members of a group articulating with P. artotrogus de Bary. It must 
be mentioned, however, that the very usual origin of the antheridial 
branch in P. acanihicum from the hypha bearing the oogonium and at 
a variable but mostly small distance from the female organ, provides 
a similarity with the arrangement of the sex organs in P. debaryanum 
and its allies, P. mamillatum Meurs and P. spinosum Sawada, which 
especially in the case of the latter two forms, would seem to be further 
sustained by the presence of numerous protuberances on the oogonium. 
However in P. acanthicum as in P. periplocum and P. oligandrum, 
the more delicate hyphae are much more extensively developed rela- 
tive to the stouter hyphae than in members of the debaryanum series, 
and the oogonial protuberances usually taper noticeably from base to- 
ward apex instead of maintaining approximately the same diameter. 

The sexual stage of Pythium salpingophorum is noteworthy chiefly 
because of the frequency of parthenogenetic development manifested 
byit. Inregard to such development as well as.to the frequent monili- — 
form arrangement of its oogonia and the usual complete filling of the 
latter structures by their individual oospores, the species shows a 
striking resemblance to P. papillatum Mathews (7). 

Although the fungus now to be described under the binomial Py- 
thium anandrum was cited in an earlier note (3) as apparently having 
an intercalary antheridium in the frequently contorted distal portion 
of the oogonial stalk, it is now evident that the oogonial stalk serves no 
direct sexual function, and that the development of the oospore is 
consistently parthenogenetic. ‘The spiny oogonial protuberances of 
this fungus are longer and more acutely pointed than those of any 
congeneric form hitherto described. In some instances an individual 
spine has been observed to have developed into a process measuring 


OCTOBER 4, 1980 DRECHSLER: NEW SPECIES OF PYTHIUM 401 


30 to 40u in length and widening midway to the tip into an expansion 
provided with secondary spiny protuberances and bearing internally 
a secondary oospore approximately 10 to 1lu in diameter. The com- 
bination of a sexual stage so unusual with a sporangium resembling 
that of a proliferous species of Phytophthora in all details except in 
that the zoospores are fashioned entirely in accordance with the asex- 
ual development characteristic of Pythium, makes P. anandrum one 
of the most anomalous members of the genus. 

Pythium mastophorum and P. polymastum, in spite of the absence of 
any indication of a proliferous sporangial habit, represent species ap- 
parently most directly related to P. megalacanthum De Bary. In both 
fungi the mycelium is conspicuous for its haphazard disposition, and 
the sporangia are unusually tardy of development. The large oogon- 
ial protuberances that have suggested the specific terms submitted 
are perhaps even more distinctive because of the thickness of wall they 
exhibit and because of the mammiform shape they frequently assume 
than because of their extraordinary size. 

Pythium helicoides, P. oedochilum, P. polytylum and P. palingenes 
are representatives of the group of species to which reference was made 
earlier in a brief abstract (4). The terminally borne, subspherical, 
proliferous sporangium with mostly apical evacuation tube which is 
characteristic of each of these representatives, corresponds well to 
that described and figured by various authors for Pythiwm proliferum 
De Bary. However in De Bary’s account (1) of the sexual apparatus 
of the latter species, the antheridia were set forth in text and in figures 
as essentially similar to those of his P. debaryanum (1.e., P. ultimum) 
in shape as well as in relationship to mycelium and oogonium. In 
the four species under consideration the antheridium is a terminal, 
long, curved cylindrical structure applied lengthwise very tightly to 
the oogonium, and producing an evacuation tube from a navel rather 
than from an apical position. And the oospore is distinguished not 
only by an unusually thick wall, but also by an organization of contents 
different from that of the oospores of the generality of forms assigned 
to Pythium, a half dozen to a score of reserve globules and a few to a 
dozen of refringent bodies being distributed with some uniformity 
through a densely granular matrix. Protrusion of the oogonium where 
in contact with antheridia, involvement of hyphal elements supporting 
the oogonium by those supporting an antheridium, occurrence of 
granular residues between ripe oospore and oospore wall, and pro- 
nounced yellow coloration of oogonium and oospore, are among the 


402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


additional features displayed in varying measure by one or another of 
the species. 

In the literature only Dissmann’s (2) figures of the elongated anther- 
idium of his Pythiwm proliferum shows unmistakable evidence of 
affinity with the group of proliferous forms under consideration. 
Examination of the fungus investigated by Kanouse (6) under the 
name Pythiomorpha gonapodioides Petersen reveals it as similarly a 
member of the same series, although her publication, except for its 
description of the clasping antheridium, gives the impression of hay- 
ing been based on a proliferous species of Phytophthora. It is to be 
noted that the illustrated description of the sexual stage given by 
Minden (8) for his Pythtomorpha gonapodioides sets forth a clavate or 
ellipsoidal antheridium making apical contact with the base of the 
oogonium—a relationship unlike that found in members of the heli- 
coides series as well as unlike that mentioned by Kanouse. Indeed 
Minden’s account of the sexual apparatus of Pythiomorpha gonapodto- 
ides rather supports the conclusion to be drawn from his statement of 
mycelial characters and his description of sporangial development, 
that under the binomial mentioned, he, like Petersen before him, dealt 
with a proliferous species of Phytophthora. 

Of the species herein described, three at least are definitely known 
to be of economic importance as parasites of cultivated plants. Py- 
thium periplocum is responsible for some very small loss in destroying 
watermelon fruits. P. acanthicum is often energetically destructive 
of watermelon fruits, causing on the whole several times as much dam- 
age to this particular product than all other species of Pythium com- 
bined. P. myriotylum though apparently not closely related to P. 
butler: Subr. exhibits the same sort of aerial parasitism, and like the 
latter species is to be reckoned among the most destructive members of 
the genus. During periods of high humidity it similarly puts forth a 
profuse growth of aerial mycelium that through the production of an 
extraordinary number of appressoria, fastens upon and penetrates into 
any host structures it may chance to encounter. The fungus would 
seem however to have a more limited range than P. butleri, in the 
United States being encountered frequently only in the more southern 
latitudes. 


Pythium dissotocum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium somewhat lustrous, capable of approximately 
18 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., the relatively straight axial 
hyphae mostly 3.5 to 6u, more rarely up to 7y in diameter, the branching 
elements of more irregular course, mostly 2 to 4u in diameter; under aquatic 


OCTOBER 4, 1980 DRECHSLER: NEW SPECIES OF PYTHIUM 403 


conditions extramatrical mycelium meager, the hyphae sometimes as narrow 
as 1.5u. Appressoria borne terminally on more delicate intramatrical 
branches in moderate number, often curved clavate, the distal part about 7u 
in diameter. Aerial mycelium usually absent though sometimes very spar- 
ingly present. 

Sporangia usually consisting entirely of undifferentiated mycelial filaments, 
but at times including somewhat swollen dactyloid lateral elements, simple 
or sparingly branched, 5 to 8u in diameter. Evacuation tube sometimes more 
than 1 mm. in length, 1.5 to 4u in diameter, widening at the refringent tip to 
a diameter of 2.5 to 9u. Zoospores usually 10 to 75 in a vesicle, but some- 
‘times in excess of 100, after rounding up usually 8 to 9u in diameter, germinat- 
ing usually by a single germ tube 1.5 to 2y in diameter, or diplanetic through 
production of an evacuation tube 1 to 1.5u in diameter, and up to 12y in 
length. 

Oogonia terminal, intercalary or laterally intercalary, provided with a 
smooth sturdy wall approximately 0.8u in thickness, subspherical, measuring 
12 to 32u, usually 17 to 25u (average 20.74) in diameter, the delimiting sep- 
tum or septa frequently inserted somewhat beyond the spherical contour, 
so as to include at either or both ends a cylindrical part up to 8u in length. 
Antheridia usually crook-necked, mostly 5 to 8u in diameter near apex, 
measuring individually 6 to 16u along curved axis from apex to basal septum, 
the apical end often somewhat flattened and thus making broad contact with 
oogonium about a short fertilization tube approximately 1.4u in diameter; 
varying in number usually from 1 to 3, 4 or 5 rarely present; when plural, 
each usually autonomous in origin; often sessile on the oogonial filament im- 
mediately adjacent to oogonium, or borne terminally on branches arising 
from a neighboring filament or from the oogonial filament often in immediate 
proximity to oogonium or at a variable distance from it. Oospore smooth, 
colorless or slightly yellowish, usually very largely though not completely 
filling oogonium, 11 to 27y, mostly 15 to 2lyu (average 17.64) in diameter, 
with a wall 1.0 to 2.2u, mostly 1.3 to 1.8u (average 1.5u) in thickness, a re- 
serve globule 5 to 17u, mostly 7 to 10u (average 8.4u) in diameter, and a 
refringent body oblate ellipsoidal or subspherical in shape, in latter case 
mostly 3.5 to 5u in diameter. 

Type culture isolated from diseased rootlets of Saccharum officinarum L. 
collected near Thibodaux, La., April, 1927. 


Pythium periilum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium often of lustrous, cumulous appearance, capable of 
approximately 18 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., the relatively 
straight axial hyphae mostly 3.5 to 5u, rarely up to 6u in diameter, the branch- 
ing elements of more irregular course mostly 2 to 3.5u in diameter; extrama- 
trical mycelium under aquatic conditions meager, the hyphae sometimes as 
narrow as 1.54. Appressoria knob-like, borne terminally on finer intramatri- 
cal branches in moderate number or more abundantly, often 7u in width and 
7 to 10u in length. Aerial mycelium absent, or on richer substrata present in 
small quantity as a shallow felty layer that collapses with age. 

Sporangium consisting sometimes entirely of undifferentiated mycelial 
elements, but generally composed in part of sparingly distributed inflated 
dactyloid elements usually 6 to 8u, rarely 8 to 12u in diameter, and some- 
times constituted in larger part of such inflated elements, which then are 
often concentrated in closely arranged branching systems though not in 
intricate complexes. Evacuation tube often 0.1 to 0.5 mm. in length, mostly 


404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


about 3u in diameter, but in the distal part widening to a diameter of 5 to 6. 
Zoospores up to 75 in a vesicle, after rounding up usually 8 to 9u in diameter, 
germinating usually by a single germ tube 1.5 to 2u in diameter. 

Oogonium terminal or more often intercalary, provided with a smooth 
wall approximately 0.5u in thickness, subspherical, measuring usually 16 to 
22u (average 18.8u) in diameter, the delimiting septum or septa frequently 
inserted somewhat beyond the spherical contour, so as to include at either 
or both poles a cylindrical part up to 4u in length. Antheridia crook-necked, 
mostly 4 to 5u in diameter in median or distal part, measuring individually 
7 to 14u along curved axis from apex to basal septum, the bluntly rounded 
apical end making narrow contact with oogonium about a very short fertili-° 
zation tube approximately ly in diameter, the proximal part usually tapering 
somewhat more gradually toward delimiting septum to diameter of support- 
ing filament; varying in number usually from 2 to 5, borne terminally or 
less frequently laterally, all on branching prolongations of a single hypha 
originating sometimes from the oogonial hypha at some distance, rarely less 
than 50u, from the oogonium, or more frequently from a neighboring fila- 
ment; the branching prolongations bearing the antheridia together usually 
with several similar vegetative prolongations being wrapped rather exten- 
sively and rather closely about the oogonium, and very frequently though 
not always as closely, about the adjacent portions of the oogonial filament. 
Oospore colorless or somewhat yellowish, smooth, completely or nearly com- 
pletely filling the oogonium, 14 to 20u (average 17.3) in diameter, with a 
wall 1.1 to 1.8u (average 1.5u) in thickness, a reserve globule usually 7 to 1lu 
(average 8.9u) in diameter, and a refringent body oblate ellipsoidal or sub- 
spherical in shape, in latter case measuring on the average 4.2u in diameter. 

Isolated from diseased rootlets of Saccharum officinarum L. collected near 
Thibodaux, La., April, 1927. 


Pythium myriotylum sp. nov. — 


Intramatrical mycelium somewhat diffuse in appearance, capable of ap- 
proximately 34 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., the younger ac- 
tively growing hyphae 2.5 to 4u, mostly 3 to 4u in diameter, the older axial 
hyphae often up to 7y in diameter, and occasionally attaining a diameter of 
8.54 previous to degeneration; provided with numerous appressoria in the 
form of swollen clavate or knob-like terminations 7 to 1lu in diameter at the 
adhering apex. Under aquatic conditions extramatrical mycelium copious, 
often with numerous appressoria. Aerial mycelium under humid conditions 
very copious, adhering to solid bodies through the production of very numer- 
ous appressoria usually in large densely branching clusters or brush-like 
groups, each cluster or group including frequently 10 to 75 or more appressoria. 

Sporangia terminal or intercalary, consisting sometimes of portions of 
outwardly undifferentiated filaments, delimited by septa or more massive 
plugs, the portions measuring 0.1 to 0.38 mm. in length and 3 to 7y in diameter; 
but more often including a number of swollen lobulate or digitate elements 
attached laterally in open arrangement, or sometimes consisting for the most 
part of swollen elements which then are usually present in denser branching 
arrangements; the swollen elements highly variable in size, measuring 10 to 
175p in length and 7 to 17y in diameter, though mostly not exceeding 50yu in 
length and 12u in diameter. Evacuation tube often a prolongation of un- 
differentiated sporangial filament, but frequently arising as a special structure 
from swollen element or laterally from filamentous part; measuring 10 to 
100u or more in length and 2 to 3.5u in diameter at base, widening usually 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 DRECHSLER: NEW SPECIES OF PYTHIUM 405 


only slightly to a diameter of 4 to 6u below somewhat expanded refringent 
apex; often failing to function effectively, then becoming set off in whole or 
in part by septum or plug, followed by production of another tube. Zoo- 
spores formed 3 to 40 in a vesicle, longitudinally grooved, broadly reniform, 
biciliate, 9 to 16u, mostly 10 to 12u (average 11u) in diameter, germinating 
usually by a single germ tube, 2.5 to 3u in diameter. 

Oogonia terminal or intercalary, smooth, provided with a wall 0.5 to 1p, 
mostly 0.7 to 0.8u in thickness, subspherical, 15 to 44u in diameter, when 
most abundantly and normally developed 15 to 33u, mostly 23 to 30u (aver- 
age 26.5u) in diameter. Antheridia up to 10, usually 3 to 6 to an oogonium; 
terminally expanded, clavate, often crook-necked or arched, the proximal 
end of the individual male organ frequently in contact with oogonium, the 
middle part upcurved, the broadened rounded apex rather narrowly applied 
and bearing the usually short (1 to 3u long), narrow (1 to 1.5u wide) fertili- 
zation tube; measuring 4 to 8u in diameter and 8 to 30yu in length, but more 
normally mostly 4.5 to 7u in diameter and 8 to 16u in length, borne terminally 
or somewhat laterally on branches often loosely or more intimately envelop- 
ing the oogonium, and supplied from 1 to 3 parent hyphae not demonstrably 
connected with the oogonial filament or connected with the latter at a dis- 
tance usually in excess of 100u from the oogonium. Oospore colorless or 
yellowish; subspherical, 12 to 37u in diameter with a wall up to 2u in thick- 
ness and a reserve globule up to 18u in diameter, but when most abundantly 
and normally developed, 12 to 26u, mostly 18 to 24u (average 20.8u) in diame- 
ter, provided with a wall 1.3 to 1.9u (average 1.6u) in thickness, and contain- 
ing a reserve globule 6 to 12u (average 9.8u) in diameter, and a refringent 
body, subspherical or sometimes strongly flattened, measuring when sub- 
spherical mostly 3.5 to 5u in diameter. 

Causing a decay of fruits of Cucumis sativus L. in South Carolina, of fruits 
of Crtrullus vulgaris Schrad. in Florida and Georgia, of fruits of Solanum 
melongena L. in Florida; and isolated from discolored rootlets of Lycopersicum 
esculentum Mill. in South Carolina. - 


Pythium periplocum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium somewhat lustrous, capable of approximately 
25 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., consisting while in active growth 
of filaments 1.2 to 4.8u, mostly 1.8 to 4.2u in diameter, later including some- 
what larger hyphae with thicker walls, measuring up to 8.5 or 94 in diameter; 
the more delicate ramifications very irregular in course, often present as 
luxuriantly and densely branching systems. Under aquatic conditions ex- 
tramatrical development rather meager. Aerial mycelium usually scanty, 
though on rich substrata present in some quantity. 

Zoosporangia appearing promptly and in moderate abundance; mostly 
intercalary though often terminal or lateral; consisting usually very largely 
of branching digitate or lobulate elements, measuring 10 to 30u in iength and 
8 to 20u, mostly 10 to 15u, in diameter,—these elements frequently assembled 
in numbers up to 20 or 25 in an intricate moriform arrangement together with 
1 or several contiguous filamentous parts usually not exceeding 75u in com- 
bined length; larger moriform complexes composed of more than 30 or 40 
swollen elements, frequently becoming evacuated through 2 or 3 tubes, con- 
stituting compound or plural sporangia. Evacuation tube 50 to 500u in 
length, arising from inflated element or less frequently from undifferentiated 
filamentous part, measuring 2 to 4.5u in diameter at the base, widening usually 
to a diameter of 3 to 8u below the refringent apex; after discharge the tip 


406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


sometimes reflexed. Zoospores formed usually up to 125 in a vesicle, longi- 
tudinally grooved, broadly reniform, biciliate, briskly active, measuring 8 to 
1lu, mostly 9 to 10u in diameter after rounding up. 

Oogonia terminal or intercalary; subspherical, measuring 13 to 32u, mostly 
22 to 28u (average 24.6u) in diameter, not including the spiny protuberances 
of which 25 to 65 are usually visible in upper and equatorial aspects and which 
measure 2 to 4u (average 2.8u) in length and 1.4 to 3u (average 1.8u) at the 
base from which they taper somewhat toward the rounded apex; provided 
with a wall approximately 0 6u in thickness that becomes attentuated to 
approximately 0.3u in the protuberances. Antheridia usually 1 to 4 in num- 
ber, usually supplied from 1 or from 2 hyphae not closely connected with the 
oogonial hypha; sometimes consisting of a simple clavate part, but more regu- 
larly longer, measuring 15 to 30u or more in length, markedly lobed. the sev- 
eral lobes mostly 5 to 10u in length and 5 to 8u in diameter, disposed either in 
series or in branching arrangement, but in any case each making contact 
ventrally with the oogonium, the rangy male organs together frequently with 
distal portions of the branching hyphal elements supporting them thus rather 
intricately and extensively wrapped about the oogonium,—each antheridium 
giving rise usually to only a single, narrow, rather short, inconspicuous fer- 
tilization tube. Ospores smooth, colorless or yellowish, not filling oogo- 
nium completely; subspherical, measuring 11.5 to 27u mostly 18 to 24y (aver- 
age 21.2u) in diameter; provided with a wall 0.7 to 1.94 (average 1.4y) in 
thickness, and containing a reserve globule 6.2 to 13.6u (average 10.7) 
in diameter and a refringent body, subspherical or somewhat flattened, 
measuring when subspherical usually 4 to 5u in diameter. 

Causing occasional instances of blossom-end decay of fruits of Citrullus 
vulgaris L., manifested outwardly by a dark brown or bluish brown discolora- 
tion, in Virginia and Maryland. 


Pythium paroecandrum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical myeelium somewhat lustrous, of radiating aspect, capable 
of approximately 15 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., composed — 
of hyphae 2.7 to 9u in diameter, the relatively straight axial ones well supplied 
with sturdy branches, which may bear appressoria in moderate or more con- 
siderable number as curved clavate terminations 8 to lly in diameter, often 
developing into systems of connected sickle-shaped structures. Aerial my- 
celium often absent or present only in moderate or in meager quantity; under 
aquatic conditions, extramatrical growth rather scanty. 

Sporangia formed promptly, mostly intercalary though occasionally lateral 
or terminal, subspherical or often prolate ellipsoidal 12 to 30u in transverse 
diameter. Evacuation tube arising indiscriminately from any part, gener- 
ally 3 to 30u in length, and 2 to 5u in diameter at the base, frequently widen- 
ing toward the apex and thus attaining a diameter of 2.5 to 7u below re- 
fringent tip. Zoospores usually 3 to 25 in a vesicle, biciliate, reniform, 
measuring 9 to lly in diameter after rounding up. 

Oogonia usually intercalary, smooth; subspherical, though often prolonged 
at either end or both ends; measuring 11 to 28u, mostly 18 to 25u (average 
21.4u) in transverse diameter; with a wall 0.4 to 0.94, mostly 0.6 to 0.7y 
thick, not readily collapsing after maturity. Antheridia 1 to 5 to an oogo- 
nium, of monoclinous or diclinous origin: When of monoclinous origin some- 
times consisting of an outwardly undifferentiated segment of hypha adjacent 
to the oogonium, mostly 7 to 15u in length and 4 to 7u in diameter; sometimes 
of a somewhat swollen adjacent segment; sometimes of an adjacent segment 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 DRECHSLER: NEW SPECIES OF PYTHIUM 407 


together with a bulbous lateral outgrowth from which the fertilization tube 
is produced; sometimes of a sessile pouch-like or crook-necked structure, 
measuring mostly 7 to 15y in length and 6 to 8y in diameter, arising proximate 
to the oogonium; sometimes of an inflated and often crook-necked terminal 
structure borne on a branch arising in proximate relation to the oogonium, 
together often with a proximal or distal cylindrical part; sometimes of an 
intercalary portion of an antheridial process arising in such proximate rela- 
tionship, and including generally a cylindrical part in addition to an inflated 
part; a sessile antheridium or antheridial branch or antheridial process oc- 
easionally arising from a functional adjacent antheridium; an antheridial 
process occasionally composed of two antheridia in series; and when two or 
more oogonia are formed adjacent to one another on the same hypha, the 
sessile antheridium or antheridial stalk or antheridial process supplying one 
oogonium often coming to have origin from the juxtaposed (and presumably 
younger) oogonium. Antheridia of diclinous origin mostly terminal expanded 
structures, often crook-necked, resembling branch antheridia of monoclin- 
ous origin, measuring mostly 6 to 8u in diameter at the distal expanded part, 
and 10 to 20u in length; rarely consisting of an intercalary portion of hypha 
bearing a broad protuberant part. Contact of antheridium with oogonial 
wall other than at delimiting septum usually moderately narrow, the oogonial 
membrane often lipped about the fertilization tube, which latter measures 
mostly 1 to 4u in length and 1.2 to 3u in diameter. Oospores colorless or 
yellowish, smooth, subspherical, 10 to 22u, mostly 16 to 21u (average 18.3). 
in diameter, provided with a wall 0.6 to 1.6u, mostly 1.1 to 1.5u (average 1.3) 
in thickness, containing a reserve globule 6 to 14u, mostly 10 to 13 (average 
11.5u) in diameter, and a refringent body, subspherical, with a diameter of 
3.5 to 4.5u, or often more or less flattened. 

Isolated from discolored root of Allium vineale L. collected near McLean, 
Va., May, 1925. 


Pythium salpingophorum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium somewhat lustrous, of pronounced radial appear- 
ance, capable of approximately 22 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., 
composed of hyphae 1.5 to 7u, mostly 2 to 5.5u in diameter, bearing appres- 
soria in moderate number as clavate terminations mostly 7 to 8.5u at the 
adhering apex, often developing into systems of connected sickle-shaped ele- 
ments. Under aquatic conditions extramatrical mycelium meager or of 
moderate quantity. Aerial mycelium usually absent. 

Sporangia formed promptly and in great numbers; sometimes terminal 
but mostly intercalary often only a short distance from the tip of the support- 
ing filament, the short distal element of the latter, often 5 to 15yu in length, 
thus frequently borne as an apical appendage; subspherical, 17 to 33u, mostly 
21 to 29u (average about 24u) in diameter; occasionally though not regularly 
proliferous, the secondary sporangium being borne within the primary one. 
Evacuation tube arising from any part of sporangium but especially frequently 
in proximate relation to one or the other of the delimiting septa; generally 
3 to 45yu in length and 1.5 to 3u in diameter at base, but widening often up toa 
diameter of 1lu toward the apex, the membrane of the frequently pestle- 
like apical enlargement often flaring backward after discharge. Zoospores 
formed usually 15 to 40 in a vesicle; longitudinally grooved, broadly reniform, 
biciliate; often very sluggish in movement and soon coming to rest; after 
rounding up, measuring usually 7.5 to 9.2u (average 8.5u) in diameter. 

Oogonia borne on hyphae usually 2 to 3u, rarely up to 4u in diameter; 


408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


terminal or intercalary, often laterally or tangentially intercalary; subspheri- 
cal, measuring 11 to 22u, mostly 13 to 19u (average 15.8) in transverse di- 
ameter, delimited by septa or irregular plugs inserted sometimes at a distance 
from juncture of subspherical part with cylindrical filament and thus often 
including a portion of latter at one or two ends up to 15yu, usually 2 to 5u, 
in length; often occurring adjacent to one another in series of 2 to 5 individuals, 
then sometimes without separating partitions; developing parthenogenetically 
in most (approximately 3 out of 4) instances, in other instances supplied with 
1 or more rarely 2 antheridia. Antheridia arising sometimes from a filament 
not closely related to the oogonial hypha, then often lateral, sessile and 
straight; but more often arising from the oogonial hypha proximate to the 
oogonium, then usually strongly crook-necked; in either case measuring 
mostly 10 to 20u in length and 3.5 to 6u in diameter, individually usually 
producing a short, narrow fertilization tube, though sometimes without de- 
limiting septum, without fertilization tube, non-functional. Oospore color- 
less or yellowish, subspherical, usually filling completely the spherical part 
of oogonium and fusing indistinguishably with the portion of oogonial wall 
in contact with it, measuring 10 to 19u, mostly 12 to 18u (average 14.6) 
in diameter, provided with a wall mostly 0.8 to 1.5u (average 1.2u) in thick- 
ness, a reserve globule 4.5 to 10u (average 6.3u) in diameter and a refringent 
body subspherical or somewhat flattened which when subspherical measures 
mostly 3 to 4u in -diameter. 

Isolated from decaying roots of Piswm sativum L. collected near Eden, 
N. Y., June, 1924. 


Pythium acanthicum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium lustrous, often of cumulous appearance, though 
frequently highly diaphanous and therefore inconspicuous, capable of approxi- 
mately 14mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., composed of hyphae 1.3 to 
5.6u in diameter, mostly 2 to 4.5u while in actively growing condition, the 
more delicate of the filamentous elements of irregular course and abundantly 
developed. Extramatrical mycelium under aquatic conditions meager. 
Aerial mycelium usually absent, sometimes occurring in very small quantity. 

Sporangia produced fairly promptly; sometimes terminal but more often 
intercalary in position; sometimes subspherical, 12 to 43u in diameter, but 
as frequently consisting individually of a subspherical part together with a 
contiguous portion of filament that may be relatively short or up to 75y or 
more in length, in latter case often including one or more branches; or con- 
sisting of 2 or more subspherical or irregularly swollen parts communicating 
by a filamentous part or parts. Evacuation tube arising from subspherical 
parts or from filamentous part, but especially frequently from near the junc- 
tion of the two; measuring 10 to nearly 200u (mostly 20 to 60u) in length, 
2.5 to 4u in diameter at the base, often widening somewhat toward the apex, 
the open termination after evacuation mostly 4 to 6u in diameter, rarely as 
much as 9u; often marked by numerous irregularities in course. Zoospores 
produced 5 to 50, usually 15 to 30 in a vesicle, biciliate, longitudinally grooved, 
broadly reniform, decidedly active, after rounding up measuring usually 8 
to 9.5u in diameter. 

Oogonium sometimes terminal especially on shorter branches, but much 
more frequently intercalary, often laterally or tangentially intercalary; pro- 
vided with a wall usually 0.4 to 0.6u in thickness; subspherical, 13 to 30u, 
mostly 19 to 28u (average 23.7u) in diameter, not including the spiny pro- 
tuberances of which 20 to 55 are usually visible in upper and equatorial 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 DRECHSLER: NEW SPECIES OF PYTHIUM ! 409 


aspects; the protuberances with a wall approximately 0.3u thick, measuring 
1.5 to 5u (average 2.7u) in length and 1 to 3y (average 1.9u) in diameter at 
the base from which they usually taper rather slightly toward the bluntly 
rounded apex. Antheridium, except in occasional cases when 2 male organs 
are present, occurring singly; borne terminally on a branch occasionally 
arising from a hypha other than the oogonial hypha and without close mycelial 
connection with the latter, but much more frequently arising from the oogo- 
nial hypha at variable distances usually not exceeding 25u and mostly not 
exceeding 10 or 15u from the septum delimiting the oogonium, the stalk 
then frequently of somewhat irregular course, measuring mostly 0.5 to 3yu 
in diameter and 6 to 33y in length; inflated clavate, straight or crook-necked, 
measuring mostly 8 to 17u in length and 5 to 9u in diameter; the longer ones 
often with 1 or 2 transverse constrictions and therefore somewhat lobate; 
sometimes applied rather broadly by the apex, but more often, especially the 
longer ones applied frequently together with a short distal portion of the 
supporting stalk lengthwise to the oogonium. Oospore smooth, colorless or 
often yellowish; usually occupying the oogonial cavity almost completely, 
though without adhering to oogonial wall; subspherical, measuring 12 to 27y, 
mostly 17 to 26u (average 21.7u) in diameter; provided with a wall 1.3 to 2u 
(average 1.6u) in thickness; often remaining for extended period with 6 to 
12 reserve globules, but in more fully matured condition revealing a single 
reserve globule, 5.5 to 12u (average 9u) in diameter, and a single refringent 
body, subspherical or flattened, when subspherical measuring 3.5 to 5y in 
diameter; germinating by the production of several germ tubes, or often 
without extended resting period developing as a sporangium by discharge of 
contents through an evacuation tube. 

Causing a blossom-end rot of the fruit of Cotrullus vulgaris L. manifested 
outwardly by a dark brown or bluish brown discoloration, in Florida, Georgia, 
Missouri, Indiana, and with greater destructiveness in Maryland and Virginia. 


Pythium oligandrum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium somewhat lustrous, sometimes of somewhat cumu- 
lous appearance, capable of approximately 27 mm. radial extension in 24 hours 
at 24°C.; composed of hyphae 1.5 to 6.8u in diameter, the more delicate ele- 
ments ramifying freely and developing extensively though not usually oc- 
curring in excessively compact branching systems. Under aquatic conditions 
extramatrical development rather profuse. Aerial mycelium usually present 
in some quantity, on richer substrata in moderate abundance. 

Sporangia formed promptly and abundantly; terminal or more often inter- 
calary; mostly subspherical, 25 to 45u in diameter, but often consisting of a 
subspherical element together with a variable length usually up to 50 or 75u, 
of filament modified little if at all, or consisting of 2 to 5 subspherical elements 
sometimes fused into a somewhat irregular structure, and sometimes con- 
nected by undifferentiated filamentous portions either in a series or in branch- 
ing arrangement. Evacuation tube arising from any part of sporangium 
but especially frequently from near juncture of subspherical part with fila- 
mentous part, usually up to 35u or more in length, mostly 2 to 4u in diameter 
at base, generally widening to a diameter of 3.5 to 6.5u toward the expanded 
apex. Zoospores formed mostly 20 to 50 in a vesicle, longitudinally grooved, 
broadly reniform, biciliate, moderately active, measuring usually 9 to 10u 
(average 9.4u) after rounding up. 

Oogonia terminal or intercalary, often intercalary close to tip of the sup- 
porting filament, and often laterally or tangentially intercalary; provided 


410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


with a wall approximately 0.5 to 0.7u in thickness; subspherical, measuring 
17 to 35u, mostly 22 to 3lu (average 26.44) in diameter, not including the 
spiny protuberances of which from 15 to 125, mostly 35 to 75, are visible in 
upper and equatorial aspects,—the spiny protuberances mostly 3 to 7u 
(average 3.9u) in length and 1.5 to 3.5u (average 2.2u) in diameter at base, 
tapering usually markedly toward the rather sharply pointed apex, sometimes 
somewhat irregular and jagged in profile, with membrane usually approxi- 
mately 0.3u in thickness; in most (approximately 4 out of 5) cases developing 
parthenogenetically, in other cases supplied with 1 or less often 2 antheridia. 
Antheridium borne terminally on branch arising usually from a hypha other 
than the one bearing oogonium, the branch in distal portion for length of 
5 to 25u usually closely applied to oogonium; measuring 12 to 25u (usually 
approximately 18) in length and 5.5 to 8y in diameter in the more inflated 
distal part; when relatively short usually clavate and somewhat crook- 
necked, when longer often divided into 2 or 3 lobes by transverse constric- 
tions; in any case applied lengthwise closely to the oogonium, the short fer- 
tilization tube produced from near the apex. Oospore colorless or yellowish; 
subspherical, 15 to 30u, mostly 19 to 27u (average 23.1u) in diameter; pro- 
vided with a wall 0.9 to 2.2u (average 1.5u) in thickness and containing a 
reserve globule 6 to 14.5y (average 9.6u) in diameter; refringent body often 
not clearly in evidence, when visible often subspherical, 3 to 4.5u in diameter. 

Isolated from discolored rootlet of Piswm sativum L. collected near Eden, 
N. Y., June, 1924. 


Pythium anandrum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium of radiating aspect, only slightly lustrous, capable 
of approximately 22 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., composed of 
relatively straight axial hyphae mostly 5 to 8.3u in diameter, bearing shorter, 
more irregularly disposed ramifying branches usually 3.5 to 5u in diameter. 
Extramatrical mycelium under aquatic conditions rather meager, delicate, 
the hyphae often as narrow as 2u. Aerial mycelium absent or when present, 
scanty and loosely arachnoid. 

Sporangia borne terminally on simple or sparingly branched filaments 
which measure, except in the frequently expanding distal portion, 2 to 3u in 
diameter and often up to 2 or 3 mm. in length, or later through continuation 
of growth by the supporting filament from immediately below the delimiting 
septum, sometimes occupying a lateral position; elongated,prolate ellipsoidal, 
measuring 18 to 40u (average 25.3u) in diameter by 32 to 85u (average 50.4) 
in length exclusive of the usually sessile papilla of dehiscence mostly 6 to 8u 
in basal diameter and 3 to 5u in length; occasionally proliferous, mostly by 
the sporangiophore growing through the empty sporangium to produce 
another sporangium farther on. Vesicle usually sessile on the sporangium, 
developing 8 to 30 zoospores; the latter biciliate, reniform, somewhat sluggish 
in movement, measuring mostly 12 to 14y (average 13u) in diameter on 
rounding up. 

Oogonia borne terminally on branches often somewhat irregular or con- 
torted and frequently widening toward the rather broad, usually convexly 
protruding delimiting septum; subspherical 12 to 33u, mostly 23 to 32u 
(average 28.3u) in diameter exclusive of the conically spiny protuberances, 
of which 35 to 65 are usually visible in upper and equatorial aspects, and 
which on firm substrata measure mostly 2 to 4u (average 2.8u) in basal diame- 
ter and 3 to lly (average 7.1u) in length, though under aquatic conditions 
often not exceeding ly in basal diameter and 2 in length; provided with a 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 DRECHSLER: NEW SPECIES OF PYTHIUM 411 


wall of moderate thickness, this thickness usually between 0.5 and 0.8u be- 
coming reduced somewhat in the spiny protuberances; constantly partheno- 
genetic, developing in the absence of any recognizable antheridia. Oospore 
colorless or yellowish, largely filling oogonium, smooth, subspherical, 11 to 
28u, mostly 21 to 27u (average 24.4u) in diameter, provided with a wall 0.8 
to 2.1u, mostly 1.2 to 1.8u (average 1.6u) in thickness, the reserve globule 
measuring 7 to 16u, mostly 10 to 14y (average 12.8) in diameter, and the re- 
fringent body when subspherical measuring mostly 4 to 5u in diameter, 
though frequently somewhat flattened. 

Isolated from softened underground bud of Rheum rhaponticum L. col- 
lected near Brentwood, Md., June 13, 1924. 


Pythium mastophorum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium without pronounced luster or radiating aspect, 
capable of approximately 20 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., 
consisting of hyphae 2 to 7.8u in diameter, often somewhat contorted and 
typically disposed in haphazard, irregular course, bearing in moderate number 
appressoria mostly knob-shaped, 8 to 12u in diameter, or less often sickle- 
shaped. Extramatrical growth under aquatic conditions sparse. Aerial 
mycelium absent or scantily developed. 

Sporangia not known to be proliferous, subspherical, usually 17 to 38u 
(average 29.3u) in diameter, somewhat darkly opaque, terminal or intercal- 
ary, in latter case often near tip of supporting hypha. Evacuation tube aris- 
ing indiscriminately from any portion of sporangium, mostly 15 to 125y in 
length and 2.5 to 8u in diameter, often more or less contorted, sometimes bear- 
ing 1 or several short diverticulations, the apical portion below refringent 
tip widening little, if at all; frequently ineffective for discharge and then often 
0.2 or 0.3 mm. in length. Zoospores formed 3 to 14 or sometimes more in a 
vesicle, biciliate, broadly reniform, usually somewhat sluggish in movement, 
after rounding up measuring 12 to 14 in diameter. 

Oogonium when primary in origin borne usually terminally on a branch 
commonly 5 to 25u long, subspherical, 24 to 48u, mostly 30 to 41u (average 
35u) in diameter exclusive of the spiny protuberances that number usually 
25 to 75 in upper and equatorial aspects; the spiny protuberance conical or 
often mammiform, measuring on firm substrata 2 to 8u (average 5.2u) in 
length and 2 to 6u (average 4.3u) in diameter at the base, where its wall is 
often approximately lu in thickness to become usually noticeably attenuated 
toward the frequently papillate apex at which the lumen yet often becomes 
very narrow; under aquatic conditions protuberances more minute, often 
not exceeding 2u in length and lu in diameter. Antheridium usually single; 
borne usually terminally or more rarely in intercalary position on a hypha 
without close connection with the oogonial branch; variously shaped, often 
somewhat lobate, 7 to 15u (usually approximately 12.) in diameter and 16 
to 28u (usually approximately 20u) in length; making broad apical contact 
with the oogonium about the origin of a fertilization tube generally measuring 
1.5 to 4u in diameter and 1.5 to 3u in length; the antheridium and the distal 
part of its supporting hypha often though not always closely engaging the 
oogonial stalk and the basal portion of the oogonium, the engagement some- 
times made more intimate through the presence of diverticulations. Oospore 
colorless or somewhat yellowish; smooth, subspherical, when primary in 
origin measuring 20 to 44u, mostly 24 to 36u (average 28.9u) in diameter, 
provided with a wall 1.4 to 2.34 (average 1.8u) in thickness, containing a re- 


412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


serve globule 12 to 18u (average 15.54) in diameter, and a refringent body 
subspherical or oblate ellipsoidal in shape, measuring when subspherical 
usually 4 to 6u in diameter, germinating by the production of a germ tube, 
or under aquatic conditions, often developing as a sporangium with the dis- 
charge of contents through an evacuation tube. 

Primary oogonium under some conditions frequently producing instead 
of an oospore, an endogenous secondary oogonium which is often similarly 
though usually more sparingly provided with protuberances, but is of infe- 
rior size, the smaller ones often little more than 20y in diameter, and produces 
a proportionately smaller oospore, the diameter of the latter sometimes little 
exceeding 15u, or occasionally gives rise to an endogenous tertiary oogonium 
within which the small oospore is produced. 

Tsolated from discolored root of Bellis perennis L. collected in Washington, 
DC: ;. June, #927. 


Pythium polymastum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium of diffuse appearance, capable of approximately 
19 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., consisting of hyphae 2.5 to 
9.5u in diameter, haphazard in disposition and branching habit, usually de- 
void of recognizable appressoria. Under aquatic conditions extramatrical 
mycelium sparse or nearly moderate in quantity. Aerial mycelium absent, 
or if present, rather scanty and floccose. 

Sporangia not known to be proliferous; somewhat darkly opaque; borne 
on extramatrical hyphae, sometimes formed terminally, though then later 
often coming to have a lateral position through continuation of growth of the 
supporting filament, or somewhat more often originating in intercalary posi- 
tion frequently a short distance from tip of supporting hypha, the distal ele- 
ment of latter then present as an apical appendage; usually subspherical, 
often noticeably oblate measuring 20 to 36u (average approximately 30u) 
in diameter, but sometimes of rather irregular shape through presence of 
1 or more dome-shaped protuberances, or even composed of 2 or 3 subspheri- 
cal parts fused into a lobate structure. Evacuation tube arising indiscrimi- 
nately from any portion of sporangium, measuring mostly 14 to 55u (average 
approximately 30u) in length and 4.5 to 7.5u in diameter. Zoospores formed 
2 to 12 or sometimes more in a vesicle, longitudinally grooved, biciliate, 
broadly bean-shaped, usually somewhat sluggish in movement, often 18y 
in length and 13u in diameter, after rounding up measuring usually 14 to 
17 in diameter. 

Oogonia usually borne terminally on branches infrequently more than 100u, 
usually less than 50y and often less than 10u long, though sometimes lateral 
and sessile on the parent filament; subspherical, measuring 29 to 67u, mostly 
29 to 58u (average 45.6u) in diameter, exclusive of the spiny protuberances 
of which usually from 10 to 125 (average approximately 55) are visible in 
upper and equatorial aspects; the spiny protuberance conical or often charac- 
teristically mammiform, measuring 1 to 10y (average 5.5u) in length and 2.5 
to 6.5u (average 4.5u) in diameter at the base, where its wall is 0.8 to 1.4u 
in thickness to become usually noticeably attenuated toward the frequently 
narrowed papillate apex at which the lumen yet often becomes very narrow. 
Antheridia 1 to 4 in number; usually terminal on branches without close 
mycelial connection with the oogonium, or sometimes intercalary, then 
mostly intercalary a short distance from tip of supporting hypha, or sometimes 
lateral and sessile on the parent filament; variously shaped, broadly saccate 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 DRECHSLER: NEW SPECIES OF PYTHIUM 413 


or cylindrica! or barrel-shaped, often with diverticulate or cupulate protuber- 
ances, or sometimes markedly lobate; measuring mostly 20 to 43u (average 
approximately 27u) in length and 12 to 2ly (average approxiamtely 15y) 
in diameter; making broad apical contact with the oogonium about the origin 
of a fertilization tube sometimes approximately 4u long and 2.5 to 3.5y in 
diameter; 1 antheridium and the distal part of its supporting stalk sometimes 
closely engaging the oogonial stalk and the basal part of the oogonium. 
Oospore nearly colorless or somewhat yellowish, smooth, subspherical, 
mostly 25 to 42u (average 35.3u) in diameter, provided with a wall 1.2 to 
2.2u (average 1.6u) in thickness, containing a reserve globule 16 to 28y (aver- 
age 21.3u) in diameter, and a refringent body, subspherical or strongly 
flattened, when subspherical measuring usually 4.5 to 5.5u in diameter. 
Isolated from Lactuca sativa L. in Connecticut, April, 1921. 


Pythium helicoides sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium diffuse in appearance, capable of approximately 
29 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., consisting of axial hyphae 
measuring in actively vegetative condition 4 to 8u in diameter, later sometimes 
attaining a diameter of 9.5u, and of branching elements mostly 2 to 4y in 
diameter usually very extensively developed and bearing a moderately abund- 
ant supply of appressoria as clavate or knob-like terminations measuring 6 
to 8u toward the adhering apex. Under aquatic conditions intramatrical 
mycelium of moderately copious development, the most delicate elements 
sometimes only 1.5u in diameter. Aerial mycelium usually well and often 
profusely developed, under conditions not too humid persisting without 
collapsing. 

Sporangia regularly formed terminally, generally on long extramatrical 
hyphae and on branches borne mostly on the distal portions of such hyphae 
often in racemose or cymoid arrangement; individually later often coming 
into a lateral position through continued elongation of the supporting fila- 
ment from immediately below the delimiting septum; subspherical or more 
often obovoid; measuring mostly 9 to 40u (average approximately 28x) 
in transverse diameter and 17 to 45u (average approximately 31) in length, 
not including an apical papillary protuberance, approximately 6y in basal 
diameter and 4y in length, often present during prolonged resting periods; 
regularly discharging through an evacuation tube mostly 3 to 40u longand 
3 to 9.5u in diameter arising from the apex, or sometimes especially following 
frustration of an apical tube, from an equatorial or a basal position; very 
often once and sometimes twice proliferous, the secondary or tertiary sporan- 
gium being formed usually within the empty envelope of its predecessor, 
though sometimes borne externally on a prolongation of the sporangiophore 
passing out through the evacuation tube. Zoospores formed usually 2 to 40 
in a vesicle, longitudinally grooved, bean-shaped, biciliate, after rounding 
up measuring 10 to 15u (average 12.3) in diameter; occasionally giving rise 
to a secondary swimming spore through the production of an evacuation tube 
measuring approximately 2.8u in diameter and 8u or more in length. 

Oogonium borne terminally sometimes on longer branch and sometimes 
on branch less than 5yu in length, but especially often through further shorten- 
ing of such branches, borne laterally as a structure sessile on the parent fila- 
ment; subspherical, often broadly protruding toward the antheridium; 
measuring mostly 26 to 40u (average approximately 33u) in diameter; pro- 


414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


vided with a sturdy wall approximately 0.7 in thickness; and often retaining 
at maturity considerable granular residues outside of the oospore. Anth- 
eridia 1 to 4 in number; when plural, sometimes each of origin independent 
of the other or others, and sometimes 2, rarely more, supplied by the same 
branching filamentous element; in any case borne terminally on branches not 
closely connected with oogonial hypha, one of the branches, or its parent fila- 
ment or a short vegetative branch from the parent filament or two of such 
elements collectively regularly winding about the oogonial hypha or the parent 
filament of the latter in 2 to 4 close helical turns, and occasionally, in addition, 
a filament closely connected with a second antheridium similarly involving a 
hyphal element having close mycelial relationship to oogonium; elongated, 
curved, cylindrical; measuring 20 to 42u in length and 6 to 9u in diameter; 
very intimately applied lengthwise to oogonium for entire length; producing 
a fertilization tube from navel position measuring usually 3 to 7y in length 
and 2 to 3u in diameter, occasionally widening to a diameter of 5u. Oospore 
nearly colorless or more often decidedly yellowish; subspherical, measuring 
mostly 21 to 32u (average approximately 27.5u) in diameter; provided with 
a wall mostly 2.5 to 3.2u in thickness, and containing at maturity 6 to 20 re- 
serve globules, mostly 4 to 6u in diameter, and 2 to 4 refringent bodies, 
approximately 3u in diameter. 

Isolated from decaying roots of Phaseolus vulgaris L. collected near Pom- 
pano, Fla., March and April, 1926. 


Pythium oedochilum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium diffuse in appearance, capable of approximately 
20 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., consisting of hyphae 1.8 to 6.5u 
in diameter, bearing appressoria rather sparingly or often in moderate abun- 
dance as swollen clavate terminations usually curved and measuring 5 to 7u 
at the adhering apex. Under aquatic conditions extramatrical mycelium of 
meager or sometimes of nearly moderate development. Aerial mycelium 
sparse, or moderately profuse, though even in latter case somewhat arach- 
noid; under conditions not too humid persisting without collapsing. 

Sporangia regularly formed terminally on long, slender, extramatrical 
hyphae that measure 2 to 4.5u, mostly about 3u, in diameter, or terminally on 
branches from the distal portion of such hyphae, in either case individually 
later often coming to a lateral position through continued growth of the sup- 
porting hypha; in exceptional instances intercalary; subspherical, obovoid or 
more often ovoid, measuring mostly 17 to 42u (average approximately 30z) 
in transverse diameter and 25 to 48u (average approximately 35y ) in length 
not including a papillary apical protuberance 6 to 8u in basal diameter and in 
length, often present during resting periods; becoming discharged individually 
by means of an evacuation tube mostly 3 to 32u (average approximately 16) 
and 3.5 to 8u (average approximately 6u) in diameter, arising usually from the 
apex but sometimes especially after functional frustration of apical tube from 
an equatorial or a basal position; sometimes proliferous though not abun- 
dantly so, most often once, somewhat rarely twice, usually by continuation of 
growth of the supporting hypha through the orifice of the evacuated mem- 
brane, and formation of another sporangium externally. Zoospores formed 
usually 10 to 35 in a vesicle, longitudinally grooved, bean-shaped, biciliate, 
after rounding up measuring 11 to 15u in diameter. 

Oogonium occasionally intercalary, but usually borne terminally on longer 
branch or less frequently terminally on branch less than 5y in length, and 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 DRECHSLER: NEW SPECIES OF PYTHIUM 415 


sometimes attached laterally to the parent filament as a sessile structure; 
subspherical, often with prominent protrusion directed toward antheridium 
and pierced centrally by the evacuation tube to yield a thick-lipped profile; 
measuring 19 to 39u, mostly 27 to 36u (average 31.5u) in diameter; provided 
with a sturdy wall0.4 to 1.1u (often 0.7) in thickness; sometimes retaining at 
maturity rather meager granular residues outside of the oospore. Antheridia 
1 to 4, mostly 1 or 2, in number; borne terminally usually on branches not often 
exceeding 50u in length and generally arising from a filament not closely con- 
nected with the oogonial filament, yet occasionally arising from the oogonial 
hypha though at distances usually more than 40u from the oogonium, or 
sometimes sessile and borne laterally on the parent filament,—in any case 
involvement of a filamentous part supporting the oogonium by a filamentous 
part supporting an antheridium associated with that oogonium, of decidedly 
rare occurrence; curved, elongated cylindrical, often somewhat wavy in con- 
tour, measuring 13 to 30u in length and 4.5 to 8u in diameter; applied in- 
timately to the oogonium lengthwise along its entire length; producing a 
fertilization tube usually 2 to 4u in length and 1.2 to 2.5 in diameter from a 
somethat forward navel position. Oospore usually distinctly yellowish; 
subspherical, measuring 16 to 34u, mostly 23 to 32u (average 28.1u) in diame- 
ter; provided with a wall 1.8 to 3.6u, mostly 2.1 to 3.2u (average 2.5u) in 
thickness, and containing 5 to 20 reserve globules, mostly 4 to 6.5u in diameter, 
and refringent bodies 2.5 to 3.5u in diameter, numbering usually 3 to 4 at 
early maturity and 10 to 20 at later maturity. 

Isolated from decaying roots of Dahha sp. in Washington, D. C., August, 
1926. 


Pythium polytylum sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium diffuse in appearance, capable of approximately 
25 mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., consisting of hyphae measuring 
1.9 to 7.54 in actively vegetative condition, later sometimes attaining a 
diameter of 8u; the more delicate elements abundantly developed and bearing 
abundant appressoria as curved, swollen, clavate terminations, 6 to 8u in 
diameter at the adhering apex. Under aquatic conditions extramatrical 
mycelium of moderately abundant development. Aerial mycelium usually 
produced in moderate quantity or sometimes more copiously, and often per- 
sisting long without collapsing. 

Sporangium appearing somewhat tardily; sometimes intercalary, especi- 
ally laterally intercalary but usually formed terminally on long, slender ex- 
tramatrical filament little given to branching, though later often coming to 
occupy a lateral position through continuation of growth of the supporting 
filament from immediately below the delimiting septum; subspherical, in 
case of larger examples often 28 to 33u in diameter not including the papillary 
protuberance of variable size sometimes present during resting periods; regu- 
larly discharging through an evacuation tube measuring mostly 8 to 20u in 
length and 7 to 9u in diameter and arising often from apex but sometimes from 
other positions, especially after functional frustration of apical tube; pro- 
liferous development infrequent and often absent. Zoospores formed usually 
10 to 35 in a vesicle, longitudinally grooved, bean-shaped, biciliate, after 
rounding up measuring mostly 9.5 to 11.5u in diameter. 

Oogonium sometimes terminal on branch generally less than 50u, rather 
often less than 5y in length, sometimes lateral and sessile on parent filament; 
subspherical, though frequently protruding broadly toward antheridia; 


416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 16 


measuring 26 to 40u, mostly 29 to 37u (average 32.6u) in diameter; provided 
with a wall 0.5 to lu (average 0.7u) in thickness. Antheridia 1 to 4, 
mostly 1 or 2 in number; sometimes lateral and sessile, but usually borne 
terminally on branches rarely more than 80u, mostly less than 50u and some- 
times less than 5u (average approximately 25y) in length, the branches aris- 
ing mostly from hyphae not closely connected with oogonial filament, though 
sometimes arising from parent filament oogonial branch or its mycelial con- 
nections, the length of hypha intervening between the septa delimiting oogon- 
jum and antheridium usually exceeding 60u,—in any case the filamentous 
elements supplying the sex organs only infrequently exhibiting helicoid in- 
volvement; curved, elongated cylindrical, often somewhat wavy in profile; 
measuring usually 15 to 40u (average approximately 30u) in length, and 5 
to 7.5u (average approximately 6) in diameter; intimately applied lengthwise 
to the oogonium, and except sometimes.for a short proximal portion, applied 
throughout its length; producing from a navel position a fertilization tube 
often 3 to 4u in length and 2u in diameter. Oospore usually distinctly yel- 
-lowish. subspherical, 23 to 35u, mostly 25 to 33u (average 28.8u) in diameter, 
provided with a wall 2.1 to 3.4u (average 2.6u) in thickness, and containing 6 
to 20 reserve globules, mostly 4 to 6u in diameter, and 4 to 8 or more refrin- 
gent bodies mostly 2.5 to 3.2u in diameter. 

Isolated from decaying root of Prunella vulgaris L. collected near Dela- 
plane, Va., August, 1926. 


Pythium palingenes sp. nov. 


Intramatrical mycelium diffuse in appearance, capable of approximately 26 
mm. radial extension in 24 hours at 24°C., consisting of hyphae 2 to 7u in 
diameter, bearing appressoria in moderate abundance as distended, clavate 
or knob-like terminations mostly 5.5 to 7.5u in diameter toward adhering 
apex. Under aquatic conditions extramatrical mycelium of meager, some- 
times of nearly moderate development. Aerial mycelium sometimes scanty, 
but more often of moderate or copious development; under conditions not 
too humid persisting long without collapsing. 

Sporangia formed promptly and in large number; regularly formed ter- 
minally on long simple extramatrical filaments mostly 2 to 4u in diameter and 
mostly devoid of branches in the distal part, but often continuing growth from 
immediately below one sporangium to produce another farther on, the older 
one then coming to occupy a lateral position; subspherical or often somewhat 
ovoid, individually measuring mostly 24 to 42u (average approximately 33y) 
in length and 18 to 36u (average approximately 29u) in transverse diameter, 
the former dimension not including a sessile apical papilla often present dur- 
ing resting periods and measuring often approximately 6u in basal diameter 
and 4y in length; individually discharging often by means of the sessile apical 
papilla, but more frequently through an evacuation tube measuring exclu- 
sive of refringent tip usually 2 to 35u (average 8u) in length and 5.5 to 10u 
(average 6.64) in diameter,—the tube arising usually from the apex, but occa- 
sionally, especially after failure of apical tube, from other positions; abund- 
antly proliferous, both by formation of sessile or nearly sessile secondary and 
often tertiary sporangia within primary ones, and by growth of the support- 
ing filaments through the orifices of the empty sporangial envelopes to pro- 
duce sporangia externally,—the latter type of development frequently re- 
peated 2 or 3 times, usually in conjunction with the former at any or all of 


OCTOBER 4, 19830 DRECHSLER: NEW SPECIES OF PYTHIUM 417 


the serial sporangia. Zoospores produced 6 to 30 in a vesicle; longitudinally 
grooved, bean-shaped, biciliate, after rounding up measuring 11 to 17y (aver- 
age 14u) in diameter; individually germinating vegetatively by a germ tube 
usually 2 to 3u in diameter, or often giving rise without interposition of a 
vegetative phase to a secondary zoospore,—the repetitional development 
taking place either by direct discharge of contents through an evacuation 
tube 3 to 6u in diameter and 5 to 15u in length, or by the production termi- 
nally of an elongated miniature sporangium often 16 to 32y in length and 7 to 
13u in transverse diameter on a germ sporangiophore mostly 2u in diameter 
and 40 to 285u in length. Conidia often borne in large numbers on aerial 
hyphae on dry substrata, generally similar to sporangia formed under aqua- 
tie conditions, though usually somewhat smaller, often intercalary as well as 
terminal, and usually germinating by the production of one or more germ 
tubes rather than giving rise to zoospores. 

Oogonia sometimes borne terminally on branches up to 75y ormorein length, 
more often on short stalks less than 5y in length, or frequently sessile on the 
parent filament, or intercalary, especially laterally or tangentially inter- 
ealary; nearly colorless or sometimes decidedly yellowish; subspherical, 
though often protruding toward antheridia; measuring 19 to 41u, mostly 28 
to 40u (average 34u) in diameter; provided individually with a wall 0.4 to 
lu, mostly approximately 0.6 in thickness. Antheridia 1 to 4 (average 2) 
in number, sometimes borne laterally on hyphae as sessile structures, but 
more often borne terminally on branches sometimes less than 5y, and usually 
not more than 50y in length,—these supporting branches usually not closely 
connected with the oogonial filament though sometimes, like often also 
certain vegetative branches, wrapped about the latter in 2 or 3 close helical 
turns; curved cylindrical, often wavy or more markedly irregular in contour; 
measuring mostly 20 to 28u in length and 6 to 8u in diameter; intimately 
applied lengthwise to the oogonium, sometimes for entire length and some- 
times only along anterior portion; producing individually an evacuation tube 
measuring often 2 to 4y in length and 2y in diameter, from a navel or often 
more forward position. Oospore usually yellowish; subspherical, measuring 
18 to 37u, mostly 26 to 36u (average 31.34) in diameter; provided with a wall 
1.5 to 3.5u (average 2.6u) in thickness, and containing 5 to 30 reserve globules 
3 to 6u in diameter, and 2 to 5 refringent bodies mostly 2.5 to 4u in diameter. 

Isolated from roots of Ambrosia trifida L. collected near Delaplane, Va., 
August, 1926. 


LITERATURE CITED 


1. Bary, A. de. Untersuchungen tiber die Peronosporeen und Saprolegnieen und die 
Grundlagen eines nattirlichen Systems der Pilze. Abhand. Senckenb. Naturf. 
Gesell. 12: 225-370. 1881. 

2. Dissmann, E. Vergleichende Studien zur Biologie und Systematik zweier Pythium- 
Arten. Archiv fiir Protistenkunde 60: 142-192. 1927. 

3. Drechsler, C. The cottony leak of cucumbers caused by Pythium aphanidermatum. 
Jour. Agr. Research 30: 1035-1042. 1925. 

4. Drechsler, C. A peculiar type of Pythium. (Abstract.) Phytopathology 17: 55. 
1927. 

5. Fischer, A. Phycomyceten. In: Rabenhorst, L. Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutsch- 
land, Oesterreich und der Schweiz. Aufl. 2, Bd. 1, Abt. 4. 505 p. 1892. 

6. Kanouse, B. B. Physiology and morphology of Pythiomorpha gonapodioides. Bot. 
Gaz. 79: 196-206. 1925. 


418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


7. Mathews, V. D. Nowakowskiella and a new species of Pythium. Jour. Elisha 
Mitchell Sei. Soc. 43: 229-232. 1928. 

8. Minden, M. von. Bevtrége zur Biologie und Systematik einheimischer submerser 
Phycomyceten. Mykologische Untersuchungen und Berichte von Dr. Richard 
Falck 1: 146-225. 1916. 

9. Pringsheim, N. Beitrdge zur Morphologie und Systematik der Algen. II. Die Sapro- 
legnieen. Jahrb. Wissensch. Bot. 1: 284-306. 1858. 

10. Schréter, J. Saprolegniineae. In: Engler, A., and Prantl, K. Die Naturlichen 
Pflanzenfamilien. Lfg. 93, Teil. 1, Abt. 1: 93-105. 1893. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 


Dr. FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE, on the nomination of the Geologica 
Society of Washington, has been elected an Honorary Member of the Acad- 
emy. This action has been taken in recognition of his contributions to geo- 
chemistry, particularly the chemistry of the silicates. He has also done 
notable work in the development of methods of analysis, in the computation 
of atomic weights and in the philosophical discussion of the evolution and 
disintegration of matter. He has for many years been intimately connected 
with scientific activities in Washington and has served the Academy as mem- 
ber and officer since its foundation. 


Dr. Wi1tu1aAm Henry Hormes, in recognition of his distinguished contribu- 
tions to geology and ethnology, his high place in the scientific life of Wash- 
ington, and his long service as member and officer, has been elected an Honor- 
ary Member of the Academy. 


The following have recently been elected to membership in the Academy: 


William Dunford Appel, Chief, Textile Section, Bureau of Standards. 

Dr. Arthur Charles Bevan, State Geologist of Virginia. 

Dr. Burt H. Carroll, Photographic Chemist, Bureau of Standards. 

Dr. Fred O. Coe, Medical Specialist. 

Carle Hamilton Dane, Associate Geologist, Geological Survey. 

Dr. Herbert Friedmann, Curator, Division of Birds, National Museum. 

Dr. James H. Hibben, Physical Chemist, Geophysical Laboratory. 

Henry Freeborn Johnston, Physicist, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, 
Carnegie Institution. 

Louis Jordan, Chief of Chemical-Metallurgical Section, Bureau of Standards. 

Arthur Remington Kellogg, Assistant Curator, Division of Mammals, 
National Museum. 

James H. Kempton, Botanist in Biophysical Laboratory, Bureau of Plant 

Industry. 

Herbert W. Krieger, Curator, Division of Ethnology, National Museum. 

Dr. William M. Mann, Director, National Zoological Park. 

Dr. Wendell C. Mansfield, Associate Geologist, Geological Survey. 

Dr. Archibald Turner McPherson, Associate Chemist, Bureau of Standards. 

Dr. Charles Moon, Physicist, Bureau of Standards. 


OCTOBER 4, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 419 


William J. Rooney, Physicist, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Car- 
negie Institution. 

Howard 8. Rappleye, Associate Mathematician, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 

Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., Archeologist, Bureau of American Ethnology. 

Rufus Harvey Sargent, Topographic Engineer, Geological Survey. 

Waldo La Salle Schmitt, Curator, Division of Marine Invertebrates, National 
Museum. 

Dr. Edgar Reynolds Smith, Chemist, Bureau of Standards. 

John Albert Stevenson, Senior Mycologist, Bureau of Plant Industry. 

Dr. Harold F. Stimson, Physicist, Bureau of Standards. 

William H. Swanger, Chief of Mechanical Metallurgy Section, Bureau of 
Standards. 

David G. Thompson, Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey. 

Joseph S. Wade, Entomologist, Bureau of Entomology. 

Dr. George Ray Wait, Physicist, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, 
Carnegie Institution. 

Dr. Henry Theodore Wensel, Senior Physicist, Bureau of Standards. 


RESOLUTION ON THE DEATH OF FRIDTJOF NANSEN 


WHEREAS, The members of the Washington Academy of Sciences have 
learned, with profound regret, of the death on May 18, 1930, of their honored 
and beloved fellow member, FrRiptsor NANsgEN, therefore be it 

Resolved, That the Academy hereby records its sorrow over this grievous 
loss to itself and to all the world of a scientist who contributed abundantly 
to our knowledge, a statesman of high and steadfast purpose and a humani- 
tarian who labored for the good of nations and of peoples—a man of highest 
character, unmindful of hardships, fearless in danger, deaf to plaudits and 
blind to pomp and circumstance, and be it further 
: ee That a copy of this resolution be sent to Dr. Nansen’s immediate 
amily. 


The following members of the AcapEMy were elected to membership in 
the National Academy of Sciences in April, 1930: Dr. Eucenr T. ALLEN, 
Geophysical Laboratory; Dr. Witt1am W. CosBLentz, Bureau of Standards; 
Dr. Vernon Keutoce, National Research Council; and Dr. SamuE. C. 
Linn, University of Minnesota. 


The corresponding list for the American Philosophical Society is: Dr. 
Norman L. Bowen, Geophysical Laboratory, Dr. Harvey W. CusHING, 
Harvard Medical School, and Dr. ALExanpER WetTMorR:, Smithsonian 
Institution. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Dr. Epcar T. WuHeErrRy, one of the Editors of this journal, has resigned 
from the position of Principal Chemist in charge, Crop Chemistry Labora- 
tory, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, to become Associate Professor of Plant 
Ecology in the Department of Botany of the University of Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 


420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 16 


WENDELL P. WooprinG, for the past few years on the staff of the Cali- 
fornia Institute of Technology, resumed full time service with the U. S. 
Geological Survey on July 1, 1930. 


STANLY CATHCART, formerly connected with the Geological Survey, was 
reinstated as geologist in the Conservation Branch but has recently joined | 
the Pennsylvania Geological Survey staff. 


RicHarD C. Capy and Stantey W. LonMAN have been appointed junior 
geologists; and Victor T. STRINGFIELD and CHARLES V. THEIs, assistant 
geologists, in the Water Resources Branch. 


W. D. JoHnson and F. G. Wetts have been transferred from the Water 
Resources Branch to the Geologic branch and assigned to field work. 


Obituary 


Professor WILLIAM SUDDARDS FRANKLIN, a member of the ACADEMY, was 
killed in an automobile accident on June 6th, 1930. He was born at Geary 
City, Kansas, in 1863, and was educated at the University of Kansas. In 
1901 he received the degree of Se.D. from Cornell University. He taught 
physics and electrical engineering successively at Kansas, Iowa, Lehigh, 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Rollins College. 


Dr. Jesse WALTER FEwKEs, for ten years chief of the Bureau of American 
Ethnology, a member of the AcaprEmy, died on May 31, 1930. He was born 
at Newton, Massachusetts, in 1850, and studied at Harvard and Leipzig 
Universities, and at various zoological stations. While engaged in work on 
marine zoology in California in 1887 he became interested in the American 
Indians, and in subsequent years devoted his attention to their ethnology 
and archeology. He was appointed ethnologist in the Bureau of American 
Ethnology in 1895, and Chief of the Bureau in 1918. 


Dr. Harvey WasuHineton Witny, Chief Chemist of the Department of 
Agriculture from 1883 to 1912, died on June 30, 1930. He was born at Kent, 
Indiana, in 1844, and educated at Hanover College, the Indiana Medical 
School, and Harvard University. He early realized the need of legislation 
to protect the public against adulteration and misbranding of foods and 
drugs, and succeeded in bringing about the enactment of the Federal Food 
and Drugs Act in 1906. To the end of his life he continued his efforts to keep 
our foods and drugs pure, and to furnish sound advice on diet and health 
matters. 


Ta 


Ek UCKERMAN Bureau of 
ES fae Bureau of nate and Sells. : 


is 


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: JOURNAL 


OF THE 
W ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 Ocrozer 19, 1930 No. 17 


GEOLOGY.—Paleozoic formations in the Gold Hill quadrangle, Utah.‘ 
Tuomas B. Nouan, U. 8. Geological Survey. (Communicated 
by R. C. WELLS.) 


Within the Gold Hill Quadrangle in western Utah, there is exposed a 
section of Paleozoic rocks that is comparable in thickness and in the 
time intervals represented to that at Eureka, Nevada.? The situation 
of the quadrangle (just east of the Nevada-Utah line and at the 40th 
parallel) about midway between the classic Nevada section and the 
well-known sections in the Wasatch’ and in the Tintic district makes 
this stratigraphic column of particular interest. In the present paper 
the Paleozoic formations that have been distinguished in the quad- 
rangle are named and very briefly described, in advance of a more 
extended discussion which is to be publeled by the Geological Survey.® 
Table 1 summarizes the section. 


CAMBRIAN SYSTEM 


Prospect Mountain quartzite-——The oldest formation exposed is a 
massively bedded quartzite that is identified with the Prospect 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U. 8S. Geological Survey. Received July 
3, 1930. 

* Arnold Hague. Geology of the Eureka district, Nevada. U.S. Geol. Survey Mono- 
graph 20. 1892. 

3 F.F. Hintze. <A contribution to the geology of the Wasatch Mountains, Utah. Annals 
New York Acad. Sci. 23: 85-143. 1913. F.C.Calkins. In Ore deposits of Utah. U.S. 
Geol Survey Prof. Paper 111: 233-239. 1920. 

*G. F. Loughlin. Geology and ore deposits of Tintic mining district, Utah. U. 8S. 
Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 107. 1919. 

5 Geology and ore deposits of the Gold Hill quadrangle, Utah. U.S. Geol. Survey. 
(Report in preparation.) 


421 


422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 17 


Mountain quartzite of the Eureka district. There are several thin 
shale beds in the upper part of the formation and lenticular conglomer- 
ates are rather abundant. Near the base of the formation as exposed 
in the quadrangle, there are several horizons of dark micaceous shale 
and some thin beds of dark quartzite that are interbedded with the 
normal quartzite. These shale horizons are well exposed along Basin 
Creek on the east front of the Deep Creek Mountains, 7 miles south of 
the southern boundary of the quadrangle. 

The formation at this locality was estimated to be about 4,750 feet 
thick, divided as follows: (1) at top, quartzite, 2500 feet; (2) shale, 
300 feet; (3) quartzite, 500 feet; (4) shale, 600 feet; (5) quartzite, 200 
feet; (6) shale, 100 feet; (7) quartzite, 500 feet; (8) shale, 50 feet. No 
fossils were found in the formation, but, since it underlies conformably 
a Lower Cambrian formation, it is thought to be of the same age. 

Cabin shale-—This formation, named from exposures in Cabin Gulch, 
south of North Pass Canyon, is composed dominantly of a dark green 
or khaki colored shale, which is only locally calcareous. Sandy 
laminae are abundant near the top of the formation, which grades, 
rather abruptly into the overlying Busby quartzite. The average of 
two fairly satisfactory measurements gave a thickness of 510 feet. A 
single fragmentary trilobite, found by Dr. Edwin Kirk, Jr., was sub- 
mitted by Dr. C. E. Resser who reports that “the thoracic segment 
from Sheep Canyon, because of the sharp angle on its anterior side, 
seems pretty definitely to belong to a Mesonacid which would make it 
Lower Cambrian in the present usage of that term in the West.” 

Busby quartzite—The basal 50 to 75 feet of the formation here 
named Busby quartzite is made of coarse-grained quartzite which 
contains in places tiny rock fragments in addition to quartz. Thin 
beds of dark quartzite and green sandy shale in varying proportions 
compose the remainder of the formation, the shales becoming in- 
creasingly abundant upwards. Mud cracks and fucoid markings are 
present in many of these beds. The top of the formation has been 
arbitrarily placed at the base of the lowest limestone bed, although 
quartzites and shales similar to those in the Busby are present above 
this line. The average of two closely accordant measurements indi- 
cates that the thickness of the formation is not far from 440 feet. 
No fossils have been identified from the formation but the gradational 
character of the contact with the overlying Abercrombie formation of 


6 Arnold Hague. Abstract of the report on the geology of the Eureke district, Nevada. 
U.S. Geol. Survey Third Ann. Rept. 254. 1882. 


oct. 19, 1930 NOLAN: PALEOZOICS IN THE GOLD HILL QUADRANGLE 423 


Middle Cambrian age make it appear that the Busby quartzite is also 
of this age. The formation name is taken from Busby Canyon, on the 
northeast slope of Dutch Mountain, in which this formation is exposed. 

Abercrombie formation.—The most characteristic type of lithology in 
the formation here named Abercrombie formation is a blue-gray dense 
limestone whose thin bedding is caused by thin bands or partings of 


TABLE 1.—Pa.rozoic FORMATIONS IN THE GOLD HILL QUADRANGLE, UTAH 





Thickness 
System Series Formation an feet 
Permian Gerster formation........... 600 
Permian and Pennsyl- 
VAM ann eT ae eRe Oquirrl formation sq.) 4.2" 8000+ 
Pennsylvanian (Potts- 
Carboniferous....{ ville) and Mississip- 
pian (?)................ Manning Canyon formation. 500+ 
Mee cnet Gaopen) Ochre Mountain limestone. . . 4500+ 
sit Searald PPet)--- Woodman formation......... 1500+ 
Mississippian (lower) Madison limestone.......... 0-400 
Guilmette formation........ 900-1200 
Mecoraane 2 s)y35 Middle». -ov caged oho. ban Simonson dolomite.......... 1000 
Sevy dolomite......... eens 9 450 
SLL ETI. yb cele eee SAL A Laketown dolomite.......... 1000+ 
geo eian Offa) cle) ela ae a Sais et eR Fish Haven dolomite........ 250 
aia aMower 402 oe. ae Chokecherry dolomite, . 74). 0-1000+ 
ieee Hicks formation............. 600-1200 
Fee ce Cc Lamb dolomite.............. 1050 
Trippe LWMIESCOME.. 2200 aac 2 ; @5 
3 : Young Peak dolomite....... 0-600 
Cambrian... ..... Middlles sy peiancacen anne ee ee Ceti 2700 
Busby, quartzitesys-ce ae oe 450 
Cabimishaler ih oven. 4. sees 510 
THO WET, velco eae 2 : 
Prospect Mountain quartzite. 3000-4750+ 


shale, which may be yellow, buff, pink or light gray. The limestone 
bands are from one-quarter to one-half inch thick. The shaly material 
is present only locally along many of the bedding planes and similar 
splotches of shale are found less commonly within the limestone and 
not parallel to the bedding. With increase or decrease in the amount 
of shale, the rock grades into lenticular shale beds or into relatively 
massively bedded limestones. Where best exposed the formation is 


424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 17 


approximately 2700 feet thick. Almost all of the shale beds are 
fossiliferous. Dr. C. E. Resser of the National Museum divided the 
collections made into two groups. One of these, from the lower portion 
of the formation, contained Bathyuriscus productus, Zacanthoides sp, 
Obolus sp, Linguella sp, and Hyolithes sp. He writes: “This seems to 
be the lowest horizon secured. The fauna corresponds with the 
Chisholm and Ophir.” From the other group, Elrathia sp, Paterina 
cf. utahensis, Micronutra sp, Obolus sp, and Fucoids were recognized. 
This group he considers as Middle Cambrian, somewhere in the lower 
part. Abercrombie Peak on the ridge south of Dry Canyon is underlain 
by the formation. 

Young Peak dolomite—At the southern end of the quadrangle the 
formation here designated as Young Peak dolomite consists of 600 feet 
of massive dark gray to black crystalline dolomite spangled with short 
white rods of dolomite. Hand specimens of the rock are identical with 
those from the Bluebird dolomite at Tintic.?7 As the formation is fol- 
lowed to the north, however, the dolomite interfingers with shaly 
limestones similar to those in the Abercrombie formation. ‘Less than 
5 miles to the north only a few feet of dolomite can be found, and the 
stratigraphic interval of the formation is occupied by portions of the 
Abercrombie formation. The upper contact of the formation is 
remarkably persistent in view of the characteristic lenticular habit of 
most of the Cambrian formations. This horizon, which marks the 
base of the overlying Trippe limestone, consists of a dark gray dolomite 
containing abundant nodules of dark gray chert which may reach 
several feet in diameter. It is overlain by a cream colored, finely 
laminated dolomite. These beds extend beyond the last reminants 
characteristic of the Young Peak dolomite. No determinable fossils 
were found in the dolomite, but it is undoubtedly of Middle Cambrian 
age. The dolomite is well exposed on Young Peak on the south side of 
Dry Canyon. 

Trippe limestone—This formation, named from exposures in 
Trippe Gulch on the south side of North Pass Canyon, is composed in 
large part of thin-bedded shale-mottled limestones similar to those 
that are so abundant in the Abercrombie formation. It contains. in 
addition a few dark dolomite layers, beds of more massive limestone, 
and several horizons of finely laminated white dolomite and limestone. 
Most of the beds appear to be lenticular, since sections of the formation 


7G. F. Loughlin. Geology and ore deposits of Tintic mining district, Utah. U.S. 
Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 107: 28. 1919. 


oct. 19, 19830 NOLAN: PALEOZOICS IN THE GOLD HILL QUADRANGLE 425 


at different points fail to show similar sequences and thicknesses. 
The average of three measurements of the Trippe limestone is 725 
feet. No fossils were found in any of these beds but the fact that 
much of it is lithologically similar to the Abercrombie formation 
makes it seem probable that it too is of Middle Cambrian age. 

amb dolomite-——The lower third of the formation, here named 
Lamb dolomite is made up largely of thick-bedded oolitic and pisolitic 
dolomites, some of which are cross-bedded. Above this lies thick- 
bedded medium gray dolomite that is mottled by patches of dolomite 
containing white rods and resembles closely parts of the Young Peak 
dolomite. In the upper 150 feet thinner bedded dolomites with sandy 
partings become increasingly abundant and these grade upwards into a 
sandstone weathering reddish-brown that was chosen to mark the 
upper limit of the formation. This sandstone lenses out to the north 
but a similar lens starts at about the same locality a short distance 
higher stratigraphically. The Lamb dolomite is 1050 feet thick. 
Although no fossils were collected from it, its age is thought to be 
Upper Cambrian, since it is similar lithologically to the overlying 
Hicks dolomite, which is definitely of this age. The formation is 
exposed in Lamb Gulch, on the north side of Dry Canyon. 

Hicks formation.—The greater part of the beds here named Hicks 
formation consist of dolomites similar to those in the Lamb dolomite, 
but the formation also contains lenticular beds of sandstone, fossili- 
ferous limestone, and, in one place, shale. Two collections of fossils 
from one of the limestones were reported by Doctor Resser to contain 
Pseudagnostus sp., Dunderbergia sp., Obolus sp., and Acrotreta sp. He 
‘ reports that these represent a lower Upper Cambrian horizon. ‘The 
thickness of the formation varies from 1200 feet to less than 600 feet, 
the more southern sections being the thinner. This decrease in 
thickness is found within a strike distance of 35 miles and is thought to 
indicate an erosional unconformity between the Hicks formation and 
the overlying Chokecherry dolomite, of Lower Ordovician age. The 
same is taken from Hicks Gulch in North Pass Canyon, in which the 
formation is well exposed. 


ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM 


Chokecherry dolomite——This formation is characterized by the 
presence of considerable silica, found both as nodules and bands of 
chert, usually dark gray to black in color, and as sandy laminae between 
thin beds of dolomite. The lower beds are, as a rule, rather massively 


426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 17 


bedded chert-bearing dark-mottled dolomite, locally oolitic and cross- 
bedded, and containing thin lenses of dolomite conglomerate. These 
beds are supplanted higher in the formation by thinner-bedded dolo- 
mite with sandy laminae, or, locally, by bands of dark chert. A single 
collection of fossils from near the top of the formation contained only 
Scaevogyra (?) sp. Dr. Edwin Kirk, Jr., who identified it, repofts: 
“The few gastropods in this lot do not permit exact age determination, 
and as yet we know of no other horizon with which it may be correlated. 
It may safely be considered as early Lower Ordovician, however.”’ 
The formation is exposed only in the southern third of the quadrangle 
where its thickness ranges from 850 feet to more than 1,000 feet. In 
the northern part of the area it is entirely absent,—the overlying Fish 
Haven dolomite resting directly upon Upper Cambrian beds. There 
must, therefore, be a pronounced unconformity above the formation. 
The formation takes its name from the exposures in Chokecherry 
Canyon just south of the southern boundary of the quadrangle. 

Fish Haven dolomite-——This formation contains the same fauna, of 
Upper Ordovician age, as the typical Fish Haven dolomite of north- 
eastern Utah,® and has therefore been given the same name. It is 
composed of medium to thick-bedded dolomite, usually dark gray in 
color, and with but little chert. In general the mottling and other 
textures found so abundantly in the formations above and below are 
lacking. In the northern part of the area, the basal bed is full of small 
silicified brachiopods (Rhynchotrema argenturbica) and is very readily 
recognized. The formation preserves a remarkably constant thickness 
of about 250 feet throughout the quadrangle, although its contact with 
the overlying Silurian Laketown dolomite is wavy in detail. The 
following species were recognized by Doctor Kirk in the fossil collec- 
tions from the formation: Halysites gracilis, Streptelasma trilobatum, 
Streptelasma sp., Columnaria sp., Calapoecia cf. anticostiensis, Rhyn- 
cotrema capax, Rhyncotrema argenturbica, Dinorthes subquadrata, Zygo- 
spira recurvirostris. 


SILURIAN SYSTEM 


Laketown dolomite—The lower half of the formation is dark gray 
and rather massively bedded. Many beds are mottled or laminatedy 
and intraformational conglomerates are numerous. This zone is 
locally very fossiliferous, one bed about 100 feet above the base being 


8G. B. Richardson. The Paleozoic section in northern Utah. Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 36: 
409-410. 1913. 


oct. 19, 1930 NOLAN: PALEOZOICS IN THE GOLD HILL QUADRANGLE 427 


full of the pentameroid brachipod Virgiana sp. Above the dark 
dolomite is 350 to 400 feet of medium-gray, massively bedded dolo- 
mite. This horizon is almost lacking in fossils and has none of the 
textural features so abundant in the lower beds. It is succeeded by 
150 to 200 feet of dark gray to black dolomite containing large numbers 
of silicified fossils, particularly corals. At the top is locally found a 
medium to light. gray coarsely crystalline dolomite, which is sparingly 
fossiliferous. ‘The upper contact of the formation is an unconformity, 
the overlying Sevy dolomite containing scattered boulders of the Lake- 
town dolomite in its basal beds, and in several places, occupying 
depressions in the older rock. The only complete section of the forma- 
tion measured 970 feet, but its thickness is obviously variable, since 
different horizons have been found at the contact with the overlying 
Devonian formation. Edwin Kirk, Jr., has examined a number of 
fossil collections from the beds herein identified as the Laketown dolo- 
mite, and reports that ‘‘This formation may be considered of Niagaran 
age. It correlates in part with the Fuselman limestone of Texas and 
New Mexico, the Laketown dolomite of northern Utah, and probably 
the upper portion of the Lone Mountain limestone of the Eureka 
district, Nev.” 


DEVONIAN SYSTEM 


Sevy dolomite-—The Sevy dolomite, well exposed in Sevy Canyon 
on the western side of the Deep Creek Range, is remarkably homo- 
geneous in its character throughout the area of outcrop. The typical 
rock is a well bedded, light mouse-gray dolomite in layers 6 to 12 inches 
thick, which weathers to a very light gray color. It is extremely dense 
and shows, on breaking, a conchoidal fracture. Most of the beds show 
a faint lamination parallel to the bedding. The formation contains a 
few beds of darker dolomite near the top and locally beds containing 
tiny nodules of light-colored chert. The basal bed of the formation is 
conglomeratic, as noted above. The only fossils found in the Sevy 
dolomite, which is about 450 feet thick, were a few crinoid stems and 
some poorly preserved gastropods, neither of which, according to 
Edwin Kirk, Jr., were in any way diagnostic. The formation is, 
however, gradational into the overlying Middle Devonian Simonson 
dolomite, and is presumably of the same age. 

Simonson dolomite.—The characteristic rock of this formation is a 
dark to medium gray dolomite in which the individual grains are 
sufficiently large to be distinguished by the unaided eye. Individual 
beds are from 1 to 2 feet thick. The most striking feature of these 


428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 17 


dolomites is the general presence of a fine lamination which is com- 
monly extremely irregular in detail. Two non-persistent dolomite 
conglomerates are found within the formation and a third, which per- 
sists throughout the outcrop of the formation has been chosen to mark 
the upper boundary. The fossil evidence available, however, indi- 
cates that the time break represented is unimportant. The average 
of two measurements of the thickness of the formation is very close 
to 1,000 feet. Three lots of fossils collected were examined by Doctor 
Kirk, and were considered by him to prove the Middle Devonian age 
of the formation. He recognized the following species:—Favosites 
(digitate form); Bellerophon sp; Stringocephalus burtoni; Martinia cf. 
meristoides; Atrypa reticularis. 

The formation takes its name from the exposures in Simonson 
Canyon on the western side of the Deep Creek Range. 

Guilmette formation—This formation, named from exposures in 
Guilmette Gulch, is composed chiefly of dolomite but contains also a 
number of thick limestone beds and several lenticular sandstones. 
The dolomite that is most characteristic is a fine-grained rock, dark to 
medium gray on fresh fracture and weathering to lighter shades of gray 
and containing numerous vugs almost completely filled with white 
coarsely crystalline dolomite. Less abundant but far more striking 
are dark dolomites filled with fragments of tubular corals. Most of 
these contain a coral of small diameter (Cladopora sp.) but a number 
are filled with a larger branching variety (Striatopara sp.). ‘The lime- 
stone beds differ from those lower in the section, being massively 
bedded, dense rocks that are light brownish gray on fresh fracture but 
weather to shades of bluish gray. The sandstone beds form a com- 
paratively small part of the formation, but the brownish color they 
assume on weathering makes them conspicuous. ‘Three measurements 
of thickness ranged from 1200 feet down to 890 feet, indicating that 
there is an unconformity between the Devonian and Carboniferous 
formations in this part of Utah. Several lots of fossils were sub- 
mitted to Edwin Kirk, Jr., for identification. He identified: Favosites 
(digitate form); Syringopora sp.; Stringocephalus burtoni; Atrypa 
reticularis; Martinia meristoides; Platyschisma (?) ef mccoyi; Cyclonema 
(?) sp.; and Pycinodesma sp. He writes: ‘“‘The formation probably 
correlates with the Nevada limestone of the Eureka district in part. 
The horizon by virtue of the Stringocephalus may accurately be placed 
as high as Middle Devonian.”’ 


oct. 19, 1930 NOLAN: PALEOZOICS IN THE GOLD HILL QUADRANGLE 429 


CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM 


Rocks of this age are by far the most widespread of the Paleozoic 
sedimentary rocks in the quadrangle. They have been divided into 
six formations, three of Mississippian, one of Mississippian (?) and 
Pennsylvanian age, one of Pennsylvanian and Permian age, and one of 
Permian age. Three facies of the Carboniferous have been distin- 
guished. ‘These have been brought into more or less close contact with 
each other by two large thrust faults; originally they were probably a 
number of miles apart. One of the three facies is represented by rather 
limited outcrops of only one formation,—the Woodman,—which over- 
lies unconformably the older Paleozoic rocks. This may be called the 
eastern facies. It underlies the lower of the two thrusts and was the 
most easterly of the three facies. The second facies,—termed the 
central facies in this paper,—lies between the two thrusts. Three 
formations, the Ochre Mountain limestone, and the Manning Canyon 
and Oquirrh formations, are present in this facies. The third and last 
facies is the western facies, which contains representatives of all six 
formations. It lies above the upper thrust. The lithologic differences 
between the Manning Canyon and QOquirrh formations in this facies 
and in the central facies are striking. 

Madison limestone—This limestone on fresh fracture is a dull dark 
gray but weathers to a distinctly lighter gray color. The beds are 
moderately thin, ranging from three inches to a foot in thickness, the 
bedding being marked in many places by 2 concentration of pink or, 
less commonly, yellowish clay. Small amounts of similarly colored 
clay are also found within individual beds in some places, and the 
weathered surfaces of such beds have a faint pinkish mottling. At the 
top of the formation there are about 10 to 15 feet of more thickly 
bedded limestone, which contains numerous nodules of dark chert. 
Above this, apparently conformable, are sandstones of the Woodman 
formation. This formation was found only in the western facies, in 
which its lower limit was a thrust fault. The maximum thickness 
seen was about 400 feet. Several lots of fossils were collected and 
submitted to G. H. Girty of the Geological Survey. He reports that 
“there can be little doubt of the geologic age as lower Carboniferous 
and the correlation as with the Madison limestone.”’ 

Woodman formation.—This formation, which underlies Woodman 
Peak on the south end of Dutch Mountain, consists of a lower division 
of diminantly calcareous sandstone and an upper one of sandy lime- 
stone. ‘The sandstone division is roughly 200 feet thick and is gen- 


430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 17 


erally poorly exposed. The beds are purplish or reddish brown, fine 
grained and contain a variable though small proportion of calcite as the 
cement. ‘Thin lenses of limestone and shale are interbedded with the 
sandstone. The greater part of the upper division is made up of 
sandy limestone, which is dark gray to almost black on fresh fracture 
but which weathers to shades of light brown to pinkish. Nodules of 
dark gray to black chert are abundant and many be as large as a foot 
in diameter. Interbedded with the limestones and gradational into 
them are calcareous sandstones. A few beds of relatively pure lime- 
stone may also be found. No complete sections of this formation were 
found in any of the three facies, but it is probable that there is no great 
difference in thickness or lithology between the three. The thickest 
continuous section found measured 1,000 feet but the top was not 
exposed: The total thickness probably does not exceed 1500 feet, 
however. A large number of fossil collections were made from the 
formation and Doctor Girty, who examined them, writes that they 
indicate an upper Mississippian age. 

Ochre Mountain limestone —This formation takes its name from the 
fact that it is well exposed on Ochre Mt. It is composed almost 
entirely of massively bedded limestones, which are usually brownish 
gray on fresh fracture and weather to a light bluish gray color. Most 
of them are fine-grained, but there are local coarser beds. Individual 
beds may be as much as 10 feet in thickness and almost all are more 
than a foot thick. The basal few hundred feet of the formation in- 
cludes beds that contain large amounts of chert, some beds being con- 
siderably more than half chert. The chert is generally light gray in 
color but weathers to a characteristic tan. About 1700 feet above the 
base of the western facies lies a thin and poorly exposed horizon of 
black shale interbedded with sandstone which is here named the Herat 
shale member from exposures near the Herat claims. No lithologic 
distinction could be made between the central and western facies of 
this formation. The thickness of the Ochre Mountain limestone was 
not accurately determined but it appears to be about 4500 feet. It 
is locally abundantly fossiliferous, and Doctor Girty reports that the 
fossil collections made prove that the formation, like the underlying 
Woodman formation, is of upper Mississippian age. 

Manning Canyon formation.—Both the central and western facies of 
the beds here identified with the Manning Canyon shale of the Oquirrh 
Mountains are-composed almost entirely of dark quartzites and sandy 
shales, and black shales. The first two are relatively more abundant 
in the central facies, and the latter in the western facies. » Limestone 


oct. 19, 1930 NOLAN: PALEOZOICS IN THE GOLD HILL QUADRANGLE 431 


beds are found only locally. The exposed thickness of the formation is 
very variable, ranging from only a few feet to more than 1,000 feet, but 
this variation appears in part at least due to the fact that the weak 
shales have been the locus of considerable low-angle faulting. A 
number of fossils collected from the interbedded limestones are con- 
sidered by Doctor Girty to indicate a Pottsville or lower Pennsylvanian 
age. In the Oquirrh Range, to the east Gilluly found high upper 
Mississippian fossils near the base of big Manning Canyon shales, 
and it is possible that if better exposures were present at Gold Hill, a 
similar fauna might also be found. ‘The writer was not able to dis- 
tinguish unconformable relations between them, however, but this 
may have been because of the widespread alteration and crushing at 
this horizon. 

Oquirrh formation—The eastern and western facies of the rocks 
here identified with the Oquirrh formation of the Oquirrh Mountains— 
are strikingly different. ‘The central facies is made up of a number of 
different kinds of rocks. Each rock type is repeated over and over again 
throughout the section, and individual beds are generally lenticular, 
two features which render it impossible to subdivide the formation. 

The facies is prevailingly sandy. Sandstones form about half of 
the section, and sandy limestones and sandy shales a large part of the 
remainder. Interbedded with these are numerous beds of limestone 
and dolomite and a few horizons of conglomerate. The western facies 
shows very little resemblance to the central. At the base is a moderate 
thickness of light-colored sandstone, above which is nearly 3,000 feet of 
massively bedded limestones, similar lithologically to those that make 
up the Ochre Mountain limestone. The remainder of the formation is 
composed of interbedded sandstones and dolomite with only minor 
amounts of limestone. The total thickness of the eastern facies is 
unknown as the top is nowhere exposed. At least 5300 feet of beds are 
shown at one locality, however. The western facies is considerably 
interrupted by faulting but a total thickness of about 8,000 feet must 
be present. The formation is abundantly fossiliferous. The lower 
few hundred feet of both facies contains a Pottsville fauna similar to 
that in the underlying Manning Canyon formation. The remainder 
of the Central facies and the bulk of the western facies is reported by 
Doctor Girty to belong to the higher Pennsylvanian. <A few fossils 
collected from the upper part of the western facies proved to be of 
Permian age. 

Gerster formation—The Gerster formation, named for exposures in 
Gerster Gulch in the northwestern corner of the quadrangle, is made 


432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 17 


up largely of thin bedded sandy and shaly limestones, which are 
brownish gray on fresh surfaces, and which weather to yellowish brown 
or pink. The beds are from 2 inches to a foot in thickness and gen- 
erally. have a concentration of sandy or shaly material along the 
bedding planes. Locally thin beds of sandstone may be found and in 
most exposures moderately thick beds of cherty limestone are also 
present. The formation is sharply set off from the underlying Oquirrh 
formation by its lithology and abundant fossil content. The thickness 
of the formation is approximately 600 feet in the one locality where the 
overlying Trissic is found. Doctor Girty reports that the fauna is 
that of the Spiriferina pulchra zone of the Permian. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Contributions to the paleontology of Peru, IV: 
“Orthophragmina”’ (Discocyclina) meroensis W. Berry, n.sp.} 
WILLARD Berry, Ohio State University. (Communicated by 
JOHN B. REESIDE, JR.) 


In a gritty greenish-brown calcareous sandstone at Calita Mero, 
Department of Piura, Peru, I have found a new species of “‘Ortho- 
phragmina,”’ which is here named “QO.” meroensis. This species, is 
associated with O. stewarti W. Berry, originally described from the 
Saman conglomerate at Calita Sal, in the same Department and about 
seventy miles south of Calita Mero. The Saman conglomerate is, so 
far as I know, the only formation in the Peruvian Tertiaries containing 
members of the genus ‘‘Orthophragmina”’ and I think I am safe, there- 
fore, in saying that it is this formation which is exposed near Calita 
Mero. The matrix is similar to that at Calita Sal except that it 
contains few pebbles and many of the grains are subangular. The 
material was apparently laid down in shallow water, though the size of 
the particles and almost complete absence of pebbles suggest that the 
deposits at Calita Mero must have been farther from shore than at 
Calita Sal, or the land mass from which they were derived had been 
eroded so that less heavy and bulky material was being carried into 
the ocean at that point. In general the genus ‘‘Orthophragmina” 
lived in shallow, tropical waters which were fairly free from coarser 
clastic material, and the matrix of the fossils from Calita Mero is in 
agreement with this fact. From Calita SalI have described also soli- 
tary corals. It would seem that in this general region during Saman 
conglomerate times little detrital material other than much angular 
quartz was being deposited. 


1 Received April 1, 1930. Work carried out under a grant from the National Research 
Council. 


oct. 19, 1930 BERRY: ““ORTHOPHRAGMINA”’ MEROENSIS 433 


The new orbitoid may be described as follows: 


‘‘Orthophragmina’”’ (Discocyclina) meroensis W. Berry, n. sp. 
Fig. 1 


Test large, very thin, slightly undulating, flanged, pronounced umbo; 
diameter 7.5 mm.; thickness 1.84 mm.; ratio of diameter to thickness 
about 4:1; fairly large central boss 3 mm. in diameter with a flange about 
2.25 mm. in diameter. Surface covered with small polygonal papillae 116.9 
microns in diameter at the surface. The surface diameter of the lateral 
chambers is 97.5 microns. 

In equatorial section the nucleoconch is composed of two chambers, the 
initial chamber is 83 microns in diameter and is half surrounded by the 
second chamber; diameter of the entire nucleoconch is 501 microns; the walls 
of the nucleoconch are thin, being only about 16.7 microns thick. The 
equatorial chambers are typically orthophragminic in shape and are 50 microns 
in radial diameter and 23.4 microns in tangential diameter near the center; 
83.5 microns in radial diameter and 33.4 microns in tangential diameter at 
the edge of the boss, and 100 microns in radial diameter and 33.4 microns in 
tangential diameter at the periphery, with walls 15.6 microns thick; these 
chambers are arranged mostly in circles altho some of the circles are not 
entire but shrink in radial diameter until they merge into the chamber walls. 

In vertical section (Fig. 1) the wall between the equatorial chambers and 
the lateral chambers is 15.6 microns thick. Vertical diameter of the equa- 
torial chambers at the center of the test 35.1 microns and at the edge of the 
boss 58.5 microns; the weakness of the flange prevents any measurements 
at the periphery. Vertical diameter of the lateral chambers 58.5 microns 
near the central part of the test; thickness of the horizontal walls 7.8 microns. 
There are 30 lateral chambers on the side of the equatorial chambers near 
the center of the test. 





Fig. 1. Vertical section X 23 


Occurrence—Calita Mero, Department of Piura, Peru, associated with 
“Orthophragmina’’ (Asterodiscocyclina) stewarti W. Berry. 


434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 17 


This species is somewhat like O. pratt Michelin but differs in having a 
much bigger umbo and in having equal-size papillae. It also resembles O. 
varians Kaufmann except that the boss in “‘O.’’ meroensis is more pronounced. 

The types are deposited in the Geological Museum of the Ohio State 
University, Cat. No. 17114. 


ORNITHOLOGY.—The geographic variations of Neocichla gutturalis 
(Bocage).| HERBERT FRIEDMANN, National Museum. 


Neocichla gutturalis (Bocage) has always been considered as an 
indivisible species comprising a monotypic genus. There is some 
uncertainty as to its correct systematic affinities. Sclater (Syst. 
Avium Aethiop., pt. 2, 1930, p. 359) puts it in the Timaliidae, but it 
may prove to be more closely allied to the starlings. The species 
ranges from southern Angola east through Northern Rhodesia and the 
Katanga to central Tanganyika Territory. 

While examining two specimens of this species in the Loveridge 
Tanganyikan collection I took the opportunity to compare them with 
two birds from Angola (Boulton coll.) in the American Museum of 
Natural History, and found them to differ so markedly that there 
seemed no reason for considering them as anything but distinct sub- 
species. Inasmuch as the species was described from Huilla, Angola, 
the eastern birds are the ones that require a name. They may be 
known as 


Neocichla gutturalis angustus subsp. nov. 


Type: Museum of Comparative Zoology no. 134447, adult female, col- 
lected at Muhulala, Kilimatindi, Tanganyika Territory, March 3, 1922, by 
Arthur Loveridge. 

Subspecific characters: Similar to the typical race but differing at first 
glance by the very much narrower white tips on the rectrices. In two Angolan 
birds the white tips of the outermost rectrices measure 12-15 mm. in width 
(measured along the shaft), while in five Tanganyikan specimens they measure 
from .5 to 5.0 mm. The nominate race is conspicuously a bird with white 
tips to the tail feathers; angustus is often practically devoid of tips or at most 
has them in the form of narrow bands. ; 

Measurements of type: wing 109.0; tail 87.0; culmen from base 22.5; tarsus 
28.0 mm. 


Remarks: I have seen no material from the Katanga or from Northern 
Rhodesia and cannot say to which form the birds of those regions belong. I 
have seen angustus from the following localities (all in Tanganyika Territory); 
Muhulala, Kilimatindi; Kakoma; Kawewe’s, 35 miles south of Tabora; and 
Manyani. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
August 1, 1930. 


oct. 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY _ 435 


A young male topotype of angustus, in the plumage described by Bittikofer 
(Notes Leyden Museum, x, note 22, 1888, p. 229, pl. 9, fig. 1) as kellenz, 
differs from that figure in being pale buffy gray instead of bright tawny on the 
rump and lower back, and on the edges of the feathers of the upper back. 
Schalow (Journ. f. Ornith., 1883, pp. 357-358) describes a juvenal bird from 
Kakoma which approximates that of kellenz, and agrees with the present male 
except that he writes that the head is dark brown whereas it is black in the 
present example, and likewise the neck is black and white, not brown and 
white as in his description. 

I am much obliged to the American Museum of Natural History for the 
loan of two Angolan and three Tanganyikan birds with which to compare the 
two Loveridge specimens. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
464TH MEETING 


The 464th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 9, 1930, President 
G. R. MANSFIELD presiding. 

Informal communication: C. P. Ross showed lantern slides of very rapid 
wave erosion in a Tertiary conglomerate on the shores of Gatun Lake, Canal 
Zone. A recession of 30 feet in 16 years has been measured. The rapidity of 
erosion is attributed to the susceptibility of the bentonitic matrix of the rock 
to attack by water. 

Program: M. R. CampsBeLu: The problem of the scientific classification of 
coal.—Although coal is the standard fuel of the world, there is no generally 
accepted scheme of classification, either for the world as a whole or for any 
of the component countries. Large manufacturing organizations in the United 
States buy their coal generally on specifications which are based on the compo- 
sition of the coal expressed in volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash or sulphur; 
but such a scheme is impossible of application by a small consumer, and conse- 
quently he is at the mercy of the dealer from whom he buys, who in turn is at 
the mercy of the jobber or the producer who mines the coal. 

In order to obviate some of the difficulties specified above, a committee of 
the American Standards Association was organized to study the question and, 
if possible, propose a classification that would be generally accepted. This 
committee has been at work for nearly three years, devoting its time mainly 
to clearing the ground for real work by discarding many of the schemes already 
proposed as inadequate or inappropriate. 

The basis for a classification has been the bone of contention and this was 
not cleared up until the last meeting, when it was definitely decided to base 
the accepted scheme of classification on the changes that vegetal matter under- 
goes as a result of rock metamorphism, starting with peat and ending with 
graphitic anthracite. The number of stages to be recognized, their names, 
and the criteria for their differentiation are yet to be determined. (Author's 
abstract.) Discussed by LANE. 

R. W. Goranson: Some problems in isostasy. (Abstract to be published 
in a later number of this JouRNAL.). Discussed by LOVERING. 

A. C. Lane: Geotherms. (Abstract to be published in a later number of 
ae JOURNAL. Discussed by Hewett, Gruuuty, G. R. MANSFIELD, SPENCER, 

UBEY. 


436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 17 


465TH MEETING 


The 465th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 30, 1930, President 
G. R. MANSFIELD presiding. 

Informal communications: W. D. Jounston described some stalactites 
collected from the roof of the inspection chamber of the Wilson Dam, Muscle 
Shoals, Alabama. The water was completely let into the dam to a level of 90 
feet above the roof of the chamber on January 1, 1925. Five years later 
stalactites 15 inches in length were collected. Discussed by MatrTuss, 
THOMPSON. 

Program: R. T. CHAMBERLIN: Isostasy from a_ geological viewpoint. 
(Abstract to be published in a later number of this JouRNAL.) Discussed by 
Keity, Bowiz, Lanz, G. R. MANSFIELD, SPENCER, A. C. Lawson, HEweEtTT, 
LOVERING. 


466TH MEETING 


The 466th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club May 14, 1930, President 
G. R. MANSFIELD presiding. 

Program: C. P. Ross: Classification of the ore deposits of south-central 
Idaho.—The ore deposits of the region may be divided into two classes, of 
Mesozoic and Tertiary age respectively, each class divisible into four groups, 
each group in turn divisible into one or more sub-groups. Most of the lodes 
of Mesozoic age of major past and present economic importance are in shear 
zones and are characterized by galena and other sulphides in a sideritic 
gangue. They have in the past yielded moderately rich ore from shoots of 
good size, but attempts to follow the lodes to any considerable depth have 
generally been unavailing. Hopes for the future, in these lodes, lie largely 
in solving the problems of finding new ore shoots at greater depth and of the 
metallurgical treatment of the more complex ore left by the early operators. 
In addition, there are other deposits in shear zones characterized by jamesonite, 
chalcopyrite, auriferous pyrite, or other sulphides, some of which have been 
profitably worked on a small scale. Mesozoic irregular replacements in 
calcareous rocks have locally proved profitable, though individual shoots are 
generally small. Contact metamorphic deposits and pegmatitic veins of the 
same age appear to be of small economic interest. 

The Tertiary lodes have been and are likely to continue to be valuable mainly 
for precious metals, free and in selenide, although a few good mines of copper 
and other base metals have been and will be developed. In the past the 
precious metal lodes have yielded rich ore, which, with a few notable excep- 
tions, was in rather small bodies. Such ore is becoming increasingly hard to 
find, and the hope for the future lies in the development of the large, low-grade 
bodies of gold ore which it is impractical to mine under present conditions, 
partly because in many the fine state of subdivision of the precious metals, even 
where free, and the fact that part of the values are locked up in exceedingly 
fine grains of selenide, present difficult metallurgical problems. Unlike the 
Mesozoic deposits, some of the Tertiary contact metamorphic lodes contain 
commercially valuable copper, lead and zine ore. (Author’s abstract.) 
Discussed by FerGuson, LOVERING, SPENCER, HEWETT, G. R. MANSFIELD. 

F. C. ScoraDER: Antimony deposits —Antimony deposits are many and 
widely distributed in the world. The primary and chief ore mineral is stib- 
nite, the sulphide of antimony. It alters to various whitish or yellowish 
oxides, such as cervantite. 


oct. 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 437 


Stibnite deposits occur in various kinds of both sedimentary and igneous 
rocks of various ages, chiefly in limestone, shale, sandstone, and granitic 
rocks. They occur chiefly in quartz veins, but also as replacements and 
impregnations, especially along contacts and bedding planes, as in Arkansas, 
Bolivia, and China. They are always epigenetic or later than the rocks that 
inclose them, and therefore never occur as an original constituent of igneous 
rocks. 

In a series of peripheral zones about a parent rock, antimony deposits, 
according to Emmons, occur in the outer zone, and with reference to depth, in 
the surface zone, depending on the physical and chemical conditions. 

Most of the more important deposits in the United States, according to 
Hess, occur in and around the Great Basin in Nevada and neighboring States 
in a region containing largely comparatively young (Cretaceous-Tertiary) 
granitic intrusive and extrusive rocks in which erosion has not been sufficient 
to remove to great depths the rocks covering and surrounding these intrusives. 

Antimony deposits are simple in character and not extensive. The average 
width of the lodes or veins worked is about a foot. They are pockety and 
usually narrow and become low grade or barren in depth, usually at depths of 
about 150 feet. 

Commonly associated with the deposits is a small amount of other sul- 
phides, such as pyrite and realgar, and many deposits are valuable for their 
gold content. 

Origin.—Most stibnite deposits of commercial value for their antimony 
content seem to have been formed near the surface, and at not necessarily 
high temperatures. They were formed by ascending hot solutions, as at 
Sulphur Spring, Calif., and Steamboat Springs, Nev., where Becker proved 
that the mercury and antimony being deposited are contained in the waters 
as double alkaline sulphides. Stibnite and kermesite are also being deposited 
at the West Gore mine, Nova Scotia, and in places stibnite is being replaced 
by pyrite, arsenopyrite, and galena. 

China.—The world’s chief reserve of antimony is in China, which country 
in recent years has supplied 90 per cent of the world’s output and is appar- 
ently able to supply the world’s demand for a long time to come. 

The antimony deposits in China occur mainly in the southeast provinces 
south of the Yangtse River in a broad northeast-southwest belt 1200 miles 
long. They parallel the belt, mountain ranges, valleys and rock structures 
of the region, which feature is regarded as favorable for their continuity. 
They nearly all occur in well defined veins in Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, 
and range in age from late Paleozoic to early Miocene. 

Of the seven or more productive fields in Hunan, which is the leading 
province, the richest is the Hsi+-K’wang Shan (Shikungshan) field which is 
estimated to have supplied in recent years about 90 per cent of the world’s 
output. It is 33 miles long by 2 miles wide. In it the deposits occur in a 
quartzitic sandstone cf Silurian age. They occur in 4 principal groups or 
ranges of hills of which the richest is the Hsi-K’wang Shan,—“‘tin mine,” 
or antimony,—hill. It is 13 miles long by 3 mile wide and consists mainly of 
a hogback ridge in which the sandstone has been upfaulted and greatly 
deformed with dip about 30° SE. 

The ore, which is relatively pure stibnite ore, occurs as seams, pockets, 
bunches, lenses and veins irregularly distributed in the sandstone, the richer 
ore shoots tending to occur beneath domal or anticlinal structures. The 
deposits have been worked to the depth of 300 feet on the incline. They 
constitute the largest known antimony deposit and the largest producer in 


438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 17 


the world. The antimony content of the sandstone taken as a whole in the 
ridge, is estimated by Tegengren to be about 6%, and the total visible reserves 
of the ridge to have been about 1,500,000 tons of metallic antimony, of which 
only about 100,000 tons or 200,000 tons of 55% ore had been mined by 1915. 

The deposits seem to have been formed by ascending thermal solutions 
derived from some deep-seated intrusive rock not yet found in the present 
field. Of the three other groups or ranges of deposits in this field, that of the 
Kiang Ch’ung range is estimated to be nearly as rich as the one just described. 

America.—In the Americas, nearly all the antimony deposits occur on or 
near the Pacific slope in a relatively narrow belt extending from Bolivia 8,000 
miles northwestward through South and Central America, Mexico, United 
States, Canada and Alaska to the Arctic Coast at Cape Prince of Wales. 
They are associated with the various mountain ranges en route and relatively 
young granitic rocks. Occurring in this belt and ranking next in importance 
to the antimony deposits of China are those of Bolivia and Mexico, both of 
which countries, however, can produce only in time of high prices. 

Mezxico.—In Mexico, which has produced 20,000 tons of metallic anti- 
mony, the deposits occur principally in a belt 14 miles long lying in and 
between Characas and Catorce in the States of San Luis Potosi and Queretaro. 
They are chiefly stibnite ores but include also oxides. They are largely asso- 
ciated with porphyry and limestone. At Zimapan, Hidalgo, according to 
Lindgren and Whitehead, a large deposit of jamesonite occurs in Cretaceous 
limestone, and is genetically connected with intrusive monzonite and diorite 
porphyry. 

Bolivia.—In Bolivia, which has produced antimony ore, mostly of high 
grade, containing 43,000 tons of metallic antimony, the deposits, mainly 
stibnite ore, occur chiefly in a belt 150 miles wide extending from Lake Titicaca 
450 miles southward to Tupiza and Atocha, and from the Chilean boundary 
eastward to Potosi. They occur mainly in the departments of Potosi, 
Tarijaand La Paz. According to Voge they occur generally in black Paleozoic 
shale in vertical quartz veins ranging up to 3 feet wide, but according to Miller 
and Singewald, they became barren at shallow depths, and some of the stibnite 
is auriferous and is associated with galena. The deposits, however, seem to 
contain a large reserve of medium or low-grade ore. Although they occur in 
the same region as the tin ores which frequently contain antimony minerals, 
the antimony veins are distinct from the tin-ore veins. Pilz regards the 
deposits as a differentiation product of a granite magma that according to 
temperature and pressure relations first formed tin and gold ore lodes, then 
copper, zinc-lead, and antimony-ore lodes. (Author’s abstract.) 

C. WytTHE Cooke: Correlation of coastal terraces—This paper has been 
printed under the title Plezstocene seashores. (THIS JOURNAL, 20: 389-395. 
1930.) 

Discussed by G. R. Mansriretp, D. WHITE, FeERGuson, LOVERING, MEN- 
DENHALL, SPENCER, RUBEY. 

JAMES GILLULY, C. H. Dans, Secretaries. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
418TH MEETING (continued) 


Remarks were made on invitation by a nonresident member, Mr. A. O. 
Larson, of the Bureau of Entomology, now located in California. 

Mr. Larson said that early in the bean weevil investigation it was found 
that bean weevil infestations were local in their nature—that one farmer would 
have weevily beans at harvest time while another not far distant would have 


oct. 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 439 


weevil free beans of the same variety. It was found that an infestation in the 
field could usually be traced to a source of infestation—beans in which weevils 
had been allowed to breed during the summer. Quite often this source of 
infestation was the beans contained in bean straw stacks. Bean straw stacks 
held over for feed or bedding for livestock could carry weevil infestations for 
several years. 

He also said that in sections where a concerted effort had been made to 
remove all sources of weevil infestation in the spring there had been a decided 
decrease in the amount of weevil infestation in the growing crops. He said 
that in the large bean growing section adjacent to Modesto, Calif., there had 
been a very decided decrease in the amount of bean weevil damage due to the 
adoption of the recommendations of the Bureau of Entomology. The weevils 
he discussed were the common bean weevil and the Southern cowpea weevil. 
(Author’s abstract.) 

Brief remarks also were made on invitation by Mr. F. J. Sprurst of the 
Bureau of Entomology, formerly located in the Pacific Northwest, but now 
visiting Washington from his new location on Long Island, New York. He 
referred very briefly to some of his recent experiences in former research work, 
but stated that he had barely commenced study of his present problem, and 
therefore was not prepared to go into it as yet with any detail. He expressed 
his satisfaction at opportunity of visiting Washington and examining the 
available literature pertaining to his work, and his pleasure at meeting the 
other scientific workers here. 

Mr. 8. A. RoHwemr, on the request of the Chairman, discussed briefly some 
of the more recent developments pertaining to the pink bollworm work in 
Arizona and the Mediterranean fruit fly work in Florida. 

Prior to discussing the work on the Mediterranean fruit fly, Mr. RonwrEr 
reviewed briefly the situation regarding the pink bollworm, stating that since 
the last meeting of the Society guarantees satisfactory to the Secretary of 
Agriculture had been received from some 21 associations or corporations. 
These contracts provided that the guarantors would pay to the Federal Gov- 
ernment sums which in the aggregate would equal one-half of the estimated 
actual and necessary losses sustained by farmers in connection with the 
enforced nonproduction of cotton in the noncotton zones which had been 
established in the State of Arizona for the crop of 1930. The contracts 
further provided that the guarantors would reimburse the Federal Govern- 
ment in event the State, through its legislature, did not, prior to December 1, 
1932, appropriate and pay one-half of the actual and necessary losses. The 
urgent need of commencing the cleanup work at the earliest practicable date 
prompted the Secretary to agree to release the funds for cleanup on receipt of 
telegraphic advice from the guarantors that they would sign a contract 
acceptable to the legal advisors of the Secretary. By February 24 twenty-one 
guarantors had advised the Secretary that they would sign such a contract, 
and funds appropriated for cleanup were released on that date. The cleanup 
work started on the 25th and more than twelve thousand laborers are now 
employed in cleaning fields. In addition to this a large number of mowers 
and rakes are used in cutting the cotton prior to the more detailed cleanup 
work which is done by hand. After all the crop remnants have been removed 
from the fields and placed in piles they are burned. 

In speaking of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Mr. Ronwer stated that a 
subcommittee of the House committee on appropriations, by authority 
conferred in a resolution passed by the House on February 10, were at the 
present time holding hearings in Florida to investigate the situation concern- 
ing the fruit fly and arrive at a determination as to the funds which might be 
appropriated for work on this pest. It will be remembered that on December 


440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 17 


9, 1929, the President submitted an estimate requesting $15,381,000 for 
additional funds to carry on the eradication and other work connected with 
the fruit fly. Pending final consideration of the estimate, Congress by joint 
resolution made available $1,290,000 to carry on the work. The House Com- 
mittee in reporting this estimate stated that it was not intended that any of 
this fund should be used for those features of the work connected with eradi- 
cation. The work which had been done since January first dealt largely with 
inspection to determine the presence of the fly, to enforce the quarantine and 
to certify and supervise the movement of products under conditions imposed 
by the quarantine.. For the work which is now being conducted it is estimated 
that the funds available will last until approximately the middle of April. 

Mr. RoHwEr also stated that information had been received from Dr. 
BAKER that on February 28th all living stages of the Mediterranean fruit 
fly in the experimental laboratory at Orlando had been destroyed. In the 
early phases of the work it had been necessary to maintain a stock of living 
material in order to get adult flies to determine what fruits and vegetables 
they would attack and also for the development of an insecticide for spraying 
purposes least injurious to the crops. The idea of having living material 
even for research purposes in an area where eradication was being carried on 
was accepted only because of the necessity of having information concerning 
the habits of the fly under Florida conditions and from the beginning it was 
the intention to use these adult flies only as long as necessary to secure infor- 
mation pertinent to the eradication work and later on to transfer investiga- 
tions to Hawaii. The time limit set for these experiments had been March 1, 
and they have now been discontinued. 

Mr. Rouwer further said that on the afternoon of March 4, larvae of the 
fruit fly were found in two sour oranges in a grove in the town of Orlando. 
Practically all of the fruit from this grove had already been marketed. Imme- 
diately following the discovery of the infestation, cleanup work was under- 
taken and other precautions to eliminate it. 

In response to a question from Dr. Poos, Mr. RoHwEr spoke briefly of the 
cleanup and removal of alternate hosts which had been carried on during the 
summer. At this time he emphasized that it would appear from statements 
included in various papers and periodicals that many of the people in the 
North had a very erroneous idea of the eradication work, believing that large 
areas of land were laid waste in connection with the campaign. He empha- 
sized that nothing could be farther from actual facts. The work that had 
been done by the Department had made it possible for the growers to market 
their crops without material loss. With the exception of one small area in 
which infestation had been found on November 16, no fruit had been de- 
stroyed. In order to move their fruit to points interstate, the growers were 
required to keep the drops and culled fruits picked up and meet other sani- 
tary requirements both in the groves and packing houses. In complying 
with these requirements the orchards were usually free from fallen fruit and 
to the casual observer would appear to be in unusually favorable condition. 
In this connection the Administration had received a large number of com- 
ments as to the favorable appearance of the groves in Florida. Furthermore 
the casual visitor would not notice any difference concerning crops. The 
requirements of the quarantine may have in individual instances imposed 
hardships and required the grower to change plans as to the type of vegetables 
or other annuals that he would plant, but such facts would not be apparent 
to those not thoroughly familiar with the situation. The speaker suggested 
that those who had knowledge of methods and facts concerning eradication 
coéperate and as occasion permitted correct the erroneous ideas which seem 
to be more or less prevalent. (Author’s abstract.) 

J. S. Wave, Recording Secretary. 


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“14 
2 
Geology.—Paleozoic formations in the Gold Hill quadrangle, U ti 


Nouan ic TR Se pea 9 Loven > Sih Ss Mis one univie w NER ae om Ears Beata 


Paleontology.—Contributions to the paleontology of Peru, IV: “0: 
(Discocyclina) meroensis W. Berry, n.sp. W1LLaRD BERRY.....5. aa 

Ornithology.—The geographic variations of Neocichla gutturalis (B 
BERT FRIEDMANN eer 


' 


*- a 


PRoceEpInas ihe 


The Geologidal Sooiaty..j cy sq-sedinfeseseccsestetne eae 
The Entomological Society tepeeseeecaceeeeseececeecnseeecenenes 


mils Jcfuscgas: ined 4A tae atesptsonl Takes Ve Peiiocinanibs bn foul 









- NOVEMBER 4, 1930 | Li SIN Os 18 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 NovEeMBER 4, 1930 No. 18 


GEOLOGY .—Abstracts of papers on isostasy and related topics given 
before the Geological Society of Washington during the spring of 
1930. 


I. SOME PROBLEMS OF MOUNTAIN STRUCTURE AND MOUNTAIN HISTORY.! 
Chester R. Longwell 


Attempts to establish some of the principles of tectonics call for 
critical examination of the concepts, old and new, which have gained 
a prominent place in this field. JI propose to consider briefly three 
questions: (1) Is diastrophism periodic? (2) Do folding and thrust- 
ing result directly in mountain uplift? (3) What is the role of isostasy 
in relation to mountain making? 

(1) Many geologists believe firmly that diastrophism is periodic 
and several modern textbooks offer this doctrine to the student without 
reservation or qualification. At best, the doctrine involves a loose 
definition of the word periodicity, which to the mathematician and 
physicist denotes a relationship that can be expressed by a rigid formula 
or represented by a regular curve. Events that seem to recur approxi- 
mately with each geologic period can hardly meet the requirements of 
this definition, since the geologic periods probably differ greatly in 
length. Moreover the intensity of diastrophism appears to be dis- 
tributed irregularly. A composite curve prepared by Holmes? 
has the required regularity, but the time period assumed is highly 
speculative, and to this is added the uncertainty as to the exact position 
in the geologic scale of many diastrophic events. Stille, after a com- 


1 Abstract of Some problems of mountain structure and mountain history, Am. Jour. 
Sci., 19: 419-434, 1980. 
2 Houmes, A., The Age of the Earth, p.49. Ernest Benn, Ltd., London, 1927. 


441 


442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 18 


prehensive tectonic study,’ describes diastrophism as periodic; but he 
groups all post-Cambrian disturbances into three ‘‘orogenies,”’ in 
each of which the separate events are disposed with some irregularity 
about a culminating point. This conclusion is expressed in graphic 
form by Lotze,4 who attempts to represent the relative intensities of 
deformation. If anything approximating a periodic relationship of 
diastrophic events ever is established, probably it will be between a 
few widely-spaced high points, and not between events in successive 
geologic periods. At present, the most we can say is that diastrophism 
has been recurrent, and that a few episodes, widely-spaced, seem to 
have been of unusual severity. Periodicity may be entertained as a 
promising hypothesis, but the common assumption that this relation- 
ship is established is wholly unwarranted. 

(2) Are genuine mountains made by folding and thrusting? Berry 
expresses the belief that the present Appalachians are the only con- 
siderable mountains that ever existed on their site. Probably his 
reasoning is by analogy, since elsewhere in the same paper he points 
out that the present height of the Rockies, Andes, and other mountain 
units has been produced by vertical uplift much later than the folding. 
We should keep in mind, however, that the Appalachian folding is 
much older than the Rocky Mountain deformation, and that the Ter- 
tiary arching in the Appalachians occurred after a vast quantity of 
rock had been removed by erosion. Possibly this arching is merely 
the latest and weakest of several vertical uplifts that succeeded the 
Appalachian folding; and considerable initial elevation may have 
resulted from the folding directly. 

For deductive study, consider the section in central Pennsylvania, 
where the folds are relatively simple. The Nittany Arch and other 
great folds, if reconstructed in any reasonable form, would rise nearly 
five miles above the truncated limbs. Assume that the land was at 
sea level when the folding began, and that isostatic equilibrium was 
maintained throughout the deformation. This would require that 
anticlines like the Nittany Arch rise to mountain heights, unless 
erosion proceeded as fast as uplift. But if the competent formations 
had been cut through at an early stage of the folding, then with further 

$STitute, H., Grundfragen der vergleichenden Tektonik. ee peides Borntraeger, 
Berlin, 1924, 

4LorzE, F., Die Joly’sche Radioactivitétshypothese zur Erkldrung der Gebirgesbil- 
dungen. RMaehmehion der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, Math.-Phys. 
Klasse, p. 102, 1927. 


6 Berry, E, W., Shall we return to cataclysmal geology? Am. Jour. Sci., 17: 1-12. 
1929. 


NOV. 4, 1930 LONGWELL: MOUNTAIN STRUCTURE 443 


compression it seems that these stiff units would have been pushed 
over the eroded crests to form erosion thrusts. In central Pennsyl- 
vania, however, no such thrusts were formed. ‘This argument favors 
the idea of considerable initial uplift, and is strengthened by the point 
that folding would concentrate rock of low density at the top of the 
zone, requiring a rise of the surface to maintain equilibrium. 

The limited sedimentary evidence that has been preserved indicates 
high topography along the Appalachian axis in Triassic time. In the 
Rocky Mountain region the character and structure of early Tertiary 
sediments constitute strong evidence of high topography while folding 
and thrusting were in progress. 

One of the most hopeful methods of attacking the problem consists 
in comparison of the older folded zones with those in which similar 
structure has been formed in late geologic and recent time. The 
Timor-Ceram island arc, in the East Indies, represents a large anticline 
which is being crowded against the Sahul shelf.6 This fold is almost 
uneroded, and obviously its vertical growth has progressed with 
horizontal movement. ‘The Alps may be taken to represent a later 
stage in the development of similar mountains. Apparently in the 
early stages the Alps were similar to the Timor and neighboring ares. 
In the Miocene, after the greatest piling up of the thrust sheets, the 
present Alpine area was a range of considerable height, shedding 
coarse debris into the Molasse synclinal trough. The last pulse of 
compressive deformation, in the later Tertiary, was followed by general 
vertical uplift which completed the mountain growth. 

Taken together, the evidence from the East Indies, the Alps, the 
Rockies, and the Appalachians suggests that folding and thrusting 
are attended by considerable direct uplift, but only a fractional part 
of that indicated by the crustal shortening, because approximate 
isostatic balance is maintained. Later there is strong vertical move- 
ment, carrying the mountain region to far greater height. Other 
pulses of uplift rejuvenate the wasting mountains, even after almost 
complete planation. In the Appalachians the latest vertical movement 
was by regional arching; in the Sierra Nevada area it was by tilting 
uplift of a great fault block. The existence of Cretaceous and early 
Tertiary highlands on the site of late Jurassic folding in the Sierra 
Nevada area is attested by vast quantities of sediments furnished 
by this belt during those periods. 


6’ Brouw_Er, H. A., The geology of the Netherlands East Indies, Chap. 3. The Macmillan 
Co., New York. . 


444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 18 


(3) The relation of isostasy to mountain making has already been 
referred to in some of its aspects. Bowie and others have performed 
valuable service in persistent emphasis of the isostatic principle, but 
have failed to consider much of the geologic evidence bearing on the 
subject. Bowie represents the crust as too weak to bear even moder- 
ate vertical stresses, and incapable of transmitting horizontal thrust. 
The geologist sees overwhelming evidence of repeated deformation by 
horizontal movement, and bases his estimate of crustal strength chiefly 
on this geologic evidence. Some of the geodetic data also, interpreted 
from the geologic viewpoint, appear to support the conclusion of great 
crustal strength. One example is sufficient for illustration. 

The work of Hayford and Bowie reduced the gravity anomalies in 
the United States to a small average value. However, isolated 
stations, and even some groups of stations covering large areas, still - 
show anomalies of considerable size. Bowie has pointed out that 
many of these outstanding anomalies appear to be related to the 
local geology; positive values being explained by rocks of high density, 
and negative values by light rocks, near the station. We are familiar 
with David White’s study of this question.’ He found that all of the 
stations in the “Appalachian Valley’? show pronounced negative 
anomalies, whereas most of the stations on the crystalline rocks just 
to the east show positive values. This distribution is striking, and 
the suggestion of control by the Appalachian structure is obvious. 
White concluded that part of the explanation for the negative group 
lies in the great depth of folded sediments; but since these formations 
are highly indurated and only slightly deficient in density, there must 
be another important factor also. He suggested that the crystalline 
basement under the sediments is also abnormally light as compared 
with the rocks in the Piedmont, because it has not been subject to 
erosion since the beginning of the Paleozoic, and therefore the denser 
rocks are still at great depth in the valley belt. This explanation 
assumes perfect isostasy, and seeks only a special local cause for the 
anomalies. ‘The conclusion is heartily indorsed by Bowie. 

Let us compare this case with another. In his study entitled “The 
strength of the earth’s crust,” Barrell attempted to show that great 
modern deltas are loads borne by the crust. A few years later Bowie 
studied the same problem, with the advantage of several gravity 
values recently determined on the Mississippi delta. There are eight 


7 Gravity observations from the standpoint of the local geology: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 
35: 207-278. 1924. 


Nov. 4, 1930 LONGWELL: MOUNTAIN STRUCTURE 445 


of the stations of which four show positive and the other four negative 
anomalies. Taking the group as a unit, the gravity anomaly is 
essentially zero; precisely, it is negative by only 0.007 dyne. Bowie 
closes his discussion of the group as follows: ‘“We are evidently 
justified in concluding that the block of the isostatic shell directly 
under the Delta of the Mississippi is very nearly in isostatic equilib- 
rium and that the delta material has been compensated for by a 
movement of material from the base of the block.’’® | 

The geologist, approaching the subject fresh from the discussion of 
local geology and its influence on gravity, naturally looks for some 
evaluation of this factor for the delta stations; but the subject is not 
even mentioned in Bowie’s discussion. If there is any one area in 
which the influence of the underlying rock on gravity values should be 
carefully considered, surely that area is the Mississippi delta. On any 
reasonable premises, the depth of abnormally light sediments must be 
large. It is estimated that the thickness of the post-Paleozoic section 
in the Gulf region is of the order of 15,000 feet; it may be much thicker 
under the delta, depending on the amount of subsidence that has 
accompanied delta building. 

Let us start with the assumption that the delta is in equilibrium. 
Taking the thickness of the sedimentary section as 15,000 feet and the 
deficiency in density as 0.4, and using the method of computation 
given by Bowie,? the average negative anomaly ought to be at least 
0.060 dyne. Since this negative anomaly does not exist, the measured 
gravity is abnormally large, and therefore the delta area is overloaded. 
According to the table of ratios proposed by Barrell,!° this anomaly 
corresponds to a thickness of 3,000 feet of rock. This estimate could 
be reduced considerably and still allow the conclusion that the crust is 
very strong even under vertical bending stresses. 

This reconsideration of the delta anomalies suggests further exami- 
nation of abnormal groups elsewhere. We do not feel justified in 
starting, as did White, with an assumption of perfect isostasy. Re- 
turning to the Appalachian trough, it seems more probable that a con- 
siderable part of the negative values indicates lack of adjustment in 
this area. As a result of the latest uplifts erosion has attacked the 
belts of weak sediments, and a large quantity of rock has been re- 

8 W. Bowtis, Isostatic investigations and data for gravity stations in the United States 
established since 1915: U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Pub. No. 99, 1924, pp. 
49-50. Also in Isostasy, pp. 89-91. 


J ICO. ODay 5 Olle 
10 BARRELL, J., The strength of the earth’s crust: Jour. Geol., 22: 309. 1914. 


446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 18 


removed. ‘The stations in the valley belt are located in these areas 
of maximum erosion. The physiography of the region indicates 
that uplift has occurred in a succession of pulses, with intervals of quiet 
between. It is highly improbable, therefore, that perfect adjustment 
has been maintained; and the large negative anomalies are in accord 
with this view. 

Both the geologic and the geodetic evidence, then, lead us squarely 
back to the conclusion of Barrell that the crust is strong enough to 
bear loads of considerable size. This is the only ground on which all 
of the facts taken together will harmonize. 


II. Isosrasy: WHAT GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS REVEAL. G. R. Putnam 


The results of gravity measurements afford abundant evidence that 
the crust of the earth is in some sort of equilibrium, but the inter- 
pretation of these results presents some difficulties because of the 
elaborate mathematics involved. A large part of the available data 
has been derived on an assumption of complete local isostasy, with the 
assertion that any error resulting from this assumption is negligible. 
This has been a source of perplexity to geologists. It has now been 
proved that gravity results derived on an assumption of complete 
local isostasy may be materially in error, as is rather clearly shown 
by the results in extremely mountainous or uneven regions. An 
assumption of a moderate degree of regional isostasy makes the gravity 
results more consistent within themselves, and also makes them more 
harmonious with reasonable geological theories and evidence. 

The theory of isostasy holds true whether equilibrium exists between 
large surface blocks, as is probably the fact, or between very small 
areas. ‘Thus far the only gravity reduction method which eliminates 
the excessive residuals for very high summits is a method based on an 
assumption that blocks of about 100 miles radius are in approximate 
equilibrium. ‘This indicates that features of moderate extent, such as 
single mountains, are not separately compensated, but are supported, 
in part at least, by the strength of the earth’s crust. 

Regional isostasy is a conception of the earth’s crust wholly different 
from that of perfect, or nearly complete localisostasy. It isin harmony 
with the known strength of the crustal materials, and with reasonable 
density distributions, with which local isostasy can not be fitted in. 
It permits the application of ideas of crustal action under loading and 
unloading, bending or breaking of the crust, difficult to conceive of 
with local isostasy. 


Nov. 4, 1930 GORANSON: ISOSTASY 447 


The gravity results clearly prove the existence of a state of equilib- 
rium in the earth’s crust, and strongly indicate that this isostasy 
falls within limits which are not unreasonable from the geologist’s 
point of view. 


III. SomE PROBLEMS IN IsosTrasy. Rk. W. Goranson 


In view of the many recent rather eulogistic discussions on the subject 
of isostasy I shall limit myself to a few questions that still await 
clarification. Isostasy can be made an important tool of geophysics— 
viz., as a criterion of crustal equilibrium in the continuous process of 
deposition and erosion with its consequent shifting of loads, but to do 
this our gravity anomalies must be reliable. 

Now we have considerable evidence to show that the upper part of 
the crust tends to approach equilibrium discontinuously by faulting— 
e.g., the uplift resulting from the unloading of the Pleistocene ice caps 
is taking place by step-faulting, subsidence in the Hawaiian and 
Fijian Islands is accompanied by faulting; furthermore, discontinuity 
of subsidence is indicated by deposition cycles of geosynclines, which 
is just what we would be led to expect in a material of finite strength. 

Hence, if we knew the deviation of a region from equilibrium—.e., 
could evaluate the stresses and knew the strength of the crust—we 
might be able to supply answers, in some cases at least, to two out- 
standing questions: Are earthquakes apt to occur or continue in a 
certain region? If so, what will be their periodicity and intensity? 
Karthquake periodicities resulting from statistical studies do not answer 
these questions but, on the other hand, may be likened to the firing 
pin of a semi-diesel engine which although kept continually hot yet 
will not fire the charge until it attains a certain pressure. | 

The first question to arise is: How reliable are the gravity anomalies? 
If we assume the measured values to be good—i.e., within 0.003 dynes 
per cm?, this question can be phrased as—What is the possible error 
in the computed value of gravity? It lies in the corrections for com- 
pensation and topography. | 

It is necessary, in calculating the amount of compensation, to assume 
a standard column as a comparison. In order to do this intelligently 
one must examine the data on variation of density with depth and 
again on how this varies with latitude and longitude. 

Let us merely recapitulate what is generally conceded to be the 
situation, since time does not permit us to examine critically the reasons 
for these conclusions. 


448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 18 


First, seismological data tell us that lateral heterogeneity seems to 
be limited to a depth of 60 km or less. Seismology has also given us 
a general picture of widespread lateral heterogeneities, as for instance 
between oceanic and continental columns. We know that a conti- 
nental column to an average depth of 30 + 10 kmis of a “‘granitic”’ 
type and below this to a depth of 45 + 10 km, of a “‘basaltic”’ type of 
rock. These depths vary with locality and seemingly bear a relation 
to topographic elevation. Under the Pacific, on the other hand, the 
upper granitic shell is apparently non-existent. Lying below 45 + 
10 km in both regions is a ‘“‘peridotitic shell” in which density is 
apparently a function of depth only. 


TABLE I 
Anomalies for different types of compensation 


Station elevation 787.5 m. av. for circle 170 km. radius 








POMBE EG) hc Ree « ok Score weers cere e a eee teat tener eens 980 . 404 
Year tts Pee eh AAO ee . oe eens, Ried Fae I ee Re ale eer: 980.618 
leye rcorrection: <& 7/4. 25 tans Ree ie ee ne ee — .243 
RONOS SCOTIE CIO NY: 4 92 Step ele Lie NS Sean ee beeen: +.087 (to 170 km) 
Column. correction and distant Zones. ©. ...<652.6¢0--<c0 be es +.019 
980.481 

Isostatic correction. = .077 

Compensation Anomaly 
Avegeratt-Haycoraalis-g. Kini) Pp. <a aea nc tee Beec kee See ee —0.020 
Pe GOO I CFG 5 a osiene fc et cike SL cake Oe days ie pe Se EAN Oy ee ee —0.004 
PAT OO MPG E DG es oe ee te ree eR Lette, Cee ten Rent ee ae —0.016 
D-“Divided,.26 and50;- km: depth ie. hk ste ee ee eee —0.009 
| ETS 5 tae mee ee ENC Geer od nee OE GaP UN Re * ene Papel GS 0.016 
PAV TOCVIAUIONN sce eects hoe pote ee On Sear Erne ene ae +0.006 


At some depth we shall, presumably, reach plastic material and thus 
a depth at which inequalities of load have all been ironed out. Between 
this plastic material and the surface isostatic movements will take place 
largely by faulting and thus seismology should give us a clue to the 
depth of this plastic layer. The clue is that earthquake foci seem 
to be definitely centered in a region lying between the surface and 
30 km depth. But even if faulting did extend much farther, the 
compensating deficiency of mass will lie at about 20 + 10 km and 


Nov. 4, 1930 GORANSON: ISOSTASY 449 


45 + 10 km depths. If compensation extends below 50 km depth 
the center of gravity of the compensating deficiency will lie at about 
35+10kmdepth. If compensation is complete above 50 km then the 
center of gravity of the compensating deficiency is at about 30 + 10 
km depth. 

The above table indicates discrepancies which may be introduced 
by choosing different depths of compensation. 

This station was so chosen that the Pratt-Hayford reduction would 
give the same anomaly whether we assumed local or regional compensa- 
tion. As one can see, the differences are not large. Ordinarily, how- 
ever, if compensation is regional any calculated value of gravity based 
on local compensation may be in error by as much as + 0.02 dynes per 
em’. 

The next table indicates errors that might be introduced by not 
correcting for deviations of density distribution from the standard 
column. 


TABLE II 





Apparent anomalies introduced 


dynes/cm? 

Diabase sill 20 km diameter at 1 km depth (density difference 

from standard +0.3) ° 
5 km thick +0 .040 
oy ae aie +0.018 
eat SS Pelee +0.010 
O Spars aya +0.005 
QRZ bein be +0.003 
Diabase sill 40 km diameter at 5 km depth 

5 km thick +0 .032 

Sedimentary layer at surface 20 km diameter (density differ- 

ence from standard —0.3) 

2 km thick —0.021 
1 ef —0.012 
Ono er os —0.005 





The next table indicates the gravity anomalies that would be ob- 
tained by introducing some of the heterogeneities listed in Table II 
into the column used in Table I. 


450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 18 


Thus an isostatically balanced column may have a plus or minus 
anomaly of as much as 0.030 dynes per cm?. Similarly an uncom- 
pensated column 350 meters elevation may have a zero gravity anomaly 
giving us pseudo-isostasy. | 


TABLE III 


Gravity anomalies 








Normal E. F, G. 
A. —0.020 +0 .008 —0.002 — —0.041 
B. —0.004 +0.028 +0.014 —0.025 
Ou —0.016 +0.016 +0.002 —0.037 
BD: —0.009 +0.023 +0 .009 —0.030 


A, B, C, D are as given in Table I. 

E—diabase laccolith 20 km rad., 5 km thick at 5 km depth. 
F—diabase sill 20 km rad., 2 km thick at 1 km depth. 
G—Deficient density due to light sediments. 


Corrections for variations of density from the standard column 
chosen will have to be made by methods similar to those used by oil 
geologists in plotting subterranean strata. The depth and method 
of compensation must be obtained by a statistical method. However, 
we see that until we can correct for heterogeneity of columns such an 
analysis must still remain somewhat doubtful. 

Thus we see that two stations in which columnar heterogeneities 
of density have not been corrected for could have a gravity anomaly 
difference of as much as 0.07 dynes/cm? and yet both be isostatically 
compensated; hence columnar heterogeneities of density must be cor- 
rected for before gravity anomaly discrepancies existing in the second 
decimal place can be depended upon. 


Iv. GEOTHERMS. A.C. Lane 


In Nature, May 9, 1878, Vol. 18, p. 42, there was published a report 
of a lecture by Sir George Airy, revised by him. In this he summed 
up the conclusions of over 50 years. One paragraph closes with this 
sentence: ‘““The form of the earth is not such as would be taken by 
a solid structure but such as would be taken by a fluid mass with 
solids floating upon it.’ This is a theory of isostasy. The next 
paragraph begins ‘‘In the second part of his address Sir George Airy 
referred to what is known about the temperatures.’’ Again in 1851, 
Osmond Fisher published his book “‘Physics of the Earth’s Crust’’ and 
after Chapters 14 and 15 on the ‘‘revelations of the plumb line’’ and 


Nov. 4, 1930 LANE: GEOTHERMS 451 


of the pendulum, he goes on to the ‘‘revelations of the thermometer.”’ 
This paper on temperature followed that of Goranson on isostasy. 
Thus history repeats itself. 

The sources of the earth’s heat are (1) environmental, or (2) inherent. 

(1) The environmental is mainly from the sun. In that we can not 
neglect the atmosphere. The temperature drops from 5 to 6°F. per 
thousand feet over Washington. If we had less atmosphere, as in 
Mars, there would be a climate more like that of the high mountains 
of the earth. On the other hand, if we had more atmosphere, we 
should have a warmer climate at its base. If the sun, or the earth 
itself, was so much hotter that the present ocean of say, 2000 fathoms 
depth, was evaporated, the pressure at the base would be 400 times 
more than at present. The bottom of that atmosphere might have 
water at the critical temperature 374°C. since the pressure would be 
above the critical pressure 217.5 atmospheres. There is, therefore, one 
important error in Lord Kelvin’s calculations of the age of the earth in 
that he assumes the temperature of the earth to have suddenly dropped 
from a constant temperature of 7000°F. to O°F. Suppose it.had been 
at 374°C. for a long time, how far down would the wave of change 
of heat have penetrated in a given time? What is the effect of a 
a wave of change of temperature going down from the surface? 


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Fig. 1. Callendar’s observations of soil temperatures at Montreal, Trans. Roy. Soc. 
Can., 1895, p. 15, showing the observations for six days with four thermometers at 
various depths. 


To illustrate this, it is well to begin with the daily wave of tempera- 
ture. One of the most thorough studies has been made by Callendar and 
McCloud at Montreal. (Fig. 1.) Numerous other studies are avail- 


452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 18 


able (by Tamura in Japan, by myself in Michigan, by Spence, Ang- 
strom, etc.). At Montreal the daily heat wave on the 4 inch thermo- 
meter which was hottest about 6 o’clock in the afternoon, shows about 
2 o’clock in the morning, Sunday, on the 10-inch thermometer and is 
barely visible at greater depths. Now the mathematical treatment 
of all these heat problems shows that in heat problems or any diffusion 
where the rate of change in time is proportional to the acceleration of 
change in space (which seems natural, since you would expect no change 
in time if as much was lost in one direction as was gained in another) 
the temperature depends upon a function of X (distance) divided by 
a /t, where t is the time, so that if a daily heat weve is reduced to 
1/10 or its heat wave in 2 feet, the yearly heat wave will be reduced 
by the same amount and will similarly be retarded in (4/365 = 19) 
<x 2 ft. or 38 ft., so that a well whose water is from some 38 ft. below 
may well be coldest in summer. If there is a heat wave which has 
occurred during the last 10,000 years and previous to that there was 
ice for a long time, the effect of that heat wave should (other things 
being equal) be felt 100 times 38, 3800 ft. down. It is thus desirable 
to test carefully, as Van Orstrand is doing, the temperatures of wells, 
especially under some of the ancient lakes. For instance, if Lake 
Lahontan was cold water 4900 years ago, the effect of the warming of 
the soil since might be confined to the first 70 x 38 = 2560 ft. Thus, 
if 25,000,000 years ago, as Kelvin suggested, the earth was so hot that 
the ocean was up in the air, and surface temperature was 374°C., and 
if since that time the surface heat has gradually sunk to say 24°C., 
only 38 miles down the temperatures would still be adjusted to 374°. 
This would account for something like 1/3 of the present gradient. 

As the deep wells are now getting numerous, the present record being 
9629 ft., we may well ask if we see any signs of these waves of heat. 
We do, for generally speaking, it is true that the gradient in the lower 
part of a wellif continued would point to a lower temperature at surface 
than at present. We must remember that the amplitude of the heat 
wave decreases very rapidly so that refined tests such as Van Orstrand 
is making are needed to get all the possible information. The general 
tendency of temperature curves to flatten going down is illustrated in 
Figure 2 from Van Orstrand and is widely characteristic. 

We must not forget, however, that there is another factor to consider 
—namely, the diffusivity. A blanket is a poor conductor so there 
may be a great difference of temperature on two sides. The better 
the conductor, the harder it is to keep up a difference of temperature 
and the more heat must flow through. In diffusion of heat, however, 


Nov. 4, 1930 LANE: GEOTHERMS 453 


another factor comes in, in the capacity of the material to absorb heat 
itself. The amount it can send on is only the surplus after it has 
itself absorbed some. So that the diffusivity is the conductivity 
divided by its heat capacity per unit volume. On the whole, near 
the surface the strata are porous and less compacted. We should 
expect them-to be poorer conductors and that the rate of increase of 
temperature would be relatively high. As a matter of fact, however, 
as Van Orstrand says, it is usually the other way. This increases 
the probability that a warming up of the world’s climate has taken 
place during the last few thousand years which has produced a flatter 
gradient for the first 3000 ft. or 1000 meters. 


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ey + 
DEPTH IN FEET 

Fig. 2. Temperatures of the Ligonier deep well, Fairmont, W Va., showing the 
penetration of heat since the last ice age down to about 3500 feet. (After C. E. Van 
ORSTRAND.) 


1,000 
2,000 
00 


2) 
fe) 
(eo) 


5,000 
6,000 
7,000 
7,500 


Omitting various chemical factors considered by Bischoff in his 
prize essay, such as oxidation, hydration, and the generation of oil 
from carbides or by bacterial action, we will consider the effect of 
radioactive disintegration. Granite is the most radioactive of ordinary 
rocks, although the range is enormous—three times as much in some 
granites as in others. The average given by Holmes is 1.3 millionths 
of a calorie per second perc. c. If the outflow of earth heat is from a 
gradient of 30°C. per kilometer and the conductivity is .008, the 


454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 18 


outflow would be 2.4 millionths of a calorie per second, equivalent 
to that generated by a column of 18 kilometers of granite. If there 
is more than that generated, it could not escape by a peaceful steady 
flow but by occasional spasmodic outbursts like the steam from a tea 
kettle as suggested by Joly. This would fit in very well with the theories 
of Schaller and Hess and Kirsch of long time and repeated activity in 
the formation of pegmatites. We have also the radio-activity of the 
underlying basalt to account for, but this is only 5/13 to 36/130 of 
that of the granite. We can see from this the importance of knowledge 
of what the flow of heat really is and the importance of studies of 
differing conductivities and diffusivities in the rocks. I have not men- 
tioned the effect of cutting down the surface faster than the geotherms 
can keep pace with it, which means that over domes and arches the 
geotherms are crowded. 

Nor have I mentioned the effect of forcing up material from below, 
as in salt domes and in batholiths, nor the effect of circulation of radio- 
active water up a fault leaking into a stratum and affecting the tem- 
peratures. The report by K. C. Heald to the American Petroleum 
Institute in Chicago, December 5, 1929, suggests research of scientific 
as well as of practical value along these lines. 


V. ISOSTASY FROM THE GEOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW. A. T.. Chamberlin 


The geologic facts which have to be taken into account are as fol- 
lows: (1) Folding into mountain ranges occurs, in general, where 
weak and light sediments have previously accumulated to exceptional 
thickness. (2) Low-angle overthrusts with horizontal displacement 
up to 20 miles, or even more, are a characteristic and dominant struc- 
ture of the more strongly folded mountain systems. (3) The folding, 
faulting, schistosity, etc., involve much crustal shortening—200 miles 
for the Appalachian belt (Keith), 125-185 miles for the Alps (Heim), 

etc. (4) The horizontal squeezing of broad belts of the earth’s sur- 
face into deformed strips of half their former width forces material 
either upward, or downward, or both. (5) Resistance is presumably 
easiest upward. In the surface portion which we see there has been 
more upward folding than downward. Taking the Briceville, Ten- 
nessee, folio as typical of the western flank of the Appalachians, the 
border thrust fault sharply separates the intricately deformed Appa- 
lachian Mountain belt from the flat-lying Pennsylvanian strata of the 
Cumberland Plateau to the west. The horizontal strata of the Cum- 
berland Plateau (or top of the sedimentary column there) provide 
a datum plane above which to figure the relative movement. The 


Nov. 4, 1930 CHAMBERLIN: ISOSTASY 455 


deformed mountain region has been folded and faulted upward with 
respect to this. More recently, since passing through a near-baselevel 
stage, both the deformed mountain belt and the undeformed plateau 
belt have been uplifted bodily. (6) There may, in addition, have 
been some downward movement of material in the deeper reaches of 
deformed belts far below the surface. Heim has urged this strongly 
for the Alps. 

The key note of isostasy 1s a working toward equilibrium. ‘It is 
not a process which upsets equilibrium, but one which restores equilib- 
rium- The light and heavy columns of the isostatic conception tend 
to become more and more equal in specific gravity, and consequently 
height, as time goes on. In short, the system by itself, runs down. 
Relief on the globe, following the purely isostatic view, should have 
been greatest in the Archeozoic, less in the Proterozoic, still less inthe 
Paleozoic, and least at the present time. Yet today is a time of ex- 
ceptional relief in the history of the globe. Not denying the validity 
of the principle of isostasy, it seems clear that it can not be the domi- 
nating principle. 

Isostatic forces are incompetent to explain the observed crustal 
shortening. The observed folding and thrust faulting are not primarily 
the result of isostatic adjustment, though forces tending toward adjust- 
ment must be in the total equation of forces. 

Operating on a purely isostatic basis a mountain block cut down to 
baselevel should rise (isostatically) to 3 of its original height (Bowie, 
Lawson). With the progress of erosion, the mountain column should 
keep rising, theoretically, and a tremendous amount of erosion would 
be required to get it finally down to a condition of comparative stability 
(baselevel). Estimating the average height of the reconstructed Ap- 
palachian folds of the Tyrone-Harrisburg section at about 16,000 feet 
above the Kittatinny peneplain, I calculate that this mountain belt 
would have to be cut down about 81,000 feet, on a ;°; basis, to bring 
it to baselevel. Yet it has only been cut down about 16,000 feet. 

Lawson and others have emphasized the fact that the initiation of 
a geosyncline must be due to some other cause than loading alone. 
A plain on which sediments are deposited can be depressed, by loading 
alone, less than two thirds as much as the thickness of the sediments. 
The fore-deeps paralleling mountain ranges and chains of islands are 
striking topographic depressions below the adjacent oceanic floors. 
They are ready to receive sediment, but not much sediment has yet 
reached them. In general they show a deficiency of mass. 


456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 18 


Following the removal of the Pleistocene ice-sheets, the areas most 
deeply buried have risen with respect to sea-level. The rise seems 
to have been greatest where the ice was thickest. This appears to be 
the best geologic evidence for the importance of the isostatic principle. 
Explained in part by elastic yield, it appears to require also transfer 
of material at considerable depth. 

Tests to decide between four different types of isostatic compensa- 
tion have shown that, so far as satisfying the equations is concerned, 
it makes little difference how the compensation is distributed, or ac- 
complished, so long as its effect is centered at about 35 miles below the 
surface. The methods are not discriminative, and it is clear that the 
geodetic evidence does not indicate how the compensation takes place. 

What we know of the rocks of the lithosphere indicates great hetero- 
geneity. Mvyriads of intrusions of different specific gravity cut the 
earth shell. The present isostatic picture is geometric, not geologic. 

The geologic picture of the yielding of the lithosphere is partly by 
solid rock movement under differential stress and partly by liquid 
flow of magmas. Each is a means of accommodation to stress, but 
their behavior is different, and the possibilities are various. Isostatic 
equilibrium, thus established, would be by complex, heterogeneous 
compensation. I believe that compensation takes place in some places 
and at some times in one way; at other places and at other times in 
other ways; and that a definite depth of compensation is not a phys- 
ical entity. No uniform depth, nor any single type of compensation, 
seems consistent with the complex, variable factors involved. We 
are familiar with the simple concept for the use of mathematics, but 
we need a complex, composite one for the actual earth, whose many 
variables transcend the powers of mathematics. 

David White has brought out the fact that the gravity anomalies, 
if one takes the average of a sufficiently large number of determinations 
for a geologic province, bear a general relation to the density of the 
rocks in the outermost mile or two of the area. On the other hand, 
the present anomaly charts of the United States and Canada show an 
absolute disregard for the topography, the geologic structure, and 
the kinds of rock of the areas considered. The surprising discrepancy 
between these two methods of study seems to indicate that the positive 
or negative sign of the anomaly for any given station has no necessary | 
relation to the regional geology. It may be determined by local 
peculiarities of density. But for a large number of stations, the pre- 
ponderance of either positive or negative anomalies does show relation- 
ship to the regional geology. 


Nov. 4, 1930 CHAMBERLIN: ISOSTASY 457 


Over large portions of the interior of North America there is little 
topographic relief to compensate. Compensation is not very signifi- 
cant there, and alternative hypotheses may work equally well. Iso- 
stasy is indeterminate from data obtained at low stations. Can we 
be certain, then, that peneplains are in a state of isostatic adjustment, 
or is that largely an inference from the fact that mountainous tracts 
show considerable compensation? In any case, the real test would 
seem to lie in the limited regions of high relief. 

Young mountains, like the Alps, show a marked deficiency of density, 
and at the same time a moderate excess of mass. An analysis of the 
mountain-building processes shows why this should be so. (1) The 
horizontal squeezing of belts of thick, light sediments into strips of less 
than half their former width greatly thickens the cover of light sedi- 
mentary rocks in the mountain belt. As these light rocks close to 
the surface are nearest the geodetic station, they exert, on the principle 
of the inverse square of the distance, a preponderating influence on the 
gravity determinations. (2) Large batholithic intrusions character- 
istically appear in the cores of folded ranges in a late stage of the 
deformation. If magmatic differentiation takes place to any great 
extent, the lighter differentiates will be in the upper portion of the 
igneous mass. Even though the total weight of the column may be 
unaffected by this process, these lighter rocks close to the surface 
will cause the geodetic instruments to give lower gravity values than 
would otherwise be the case. This will make the excess of mass ap- 
pear less, though actually it may not be. (8) The squeezing up of 
mountain folds and the rise of fault slices imposes an added burden 
upon the supporting lithosphere beneath. Added weight presses down- 
ward on the isostatic principle. Hence the lower portion of the de- 
formed wedge mass may be forced downward, while the upper part 
protrudes upward as mountains. Heim, Kossmat, Born, Lawson, 
and others believe in a downward movement of the deeper portion of 
the deformed mass. The denser rock material in the lower portion of 
the deformed mass may be both depressed more deeply beneath the 
surface, and also perhaps forced out from the deformed belt beneath 
the immediately adjoining tracts. If the latter be so, it affords a 
possible picture of the nature of the accommodation between the lower 
portion of a deformed mountain wedge-block and the main mass of 
the lithosphere beneath. At the same time that the denser, deep- 
seated rocks are depressed and forced outward below, lighter surficial 
rocks are crowded into the mountain column above. The result is 
that the mountain mass becomes a lesser burden to be supported than 


458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 18 


would otherwise be the case. No division of the lithosphere into a 
crustal and sub-crustal portion enters into the concept. It is all solid 
lithosphere, except for local occurrences of magmas. (4) During an 
orogenic revolution, erosion is actively at work, steadily reducing the 
excess mass of the rising mountain chains. 

If this analysis of the operating geologic processes be valid, we see 
how geosynclinal strata may be folded and faulted into mountain 
ranges, exhibiting the familiar observed phenomena, and yet at the 
same time satisfying the gravity determinations. We see a harmoni- 
zation of geologic facts and geodetic determinations, so far as deformed 
mountain ranges are concerned. But all of these processes together, 
for a considerable time at least, fail to prevent the development of some 
excess mass in the mountainous belt. The excess mass is supported 
by the strength of the earth. 

If folded mountain chains were formed by the forces tending toward 
isostatic equilibrium, departures from adjustment should be greatest 
immediately before the mountains were built. Making the mountains 
should restore equilibrium, and the adjustment should be most nearly 
achieved, and most perfect, Just as the forces have been spent in com- 
pleting the mountains. Just the reverse, however, appears to be the 
case. Recently folded mountains are particularly out of adjustment. 
Hence we are forced to conclude that mountain folding is primarily 
independent of isostasy and in direct opposition to it. The mountains 
are formed in spite of isostasy. Isostatic forces, however, are all in 
the whole equation of forces, and play their appropriate part, but that 
part is secondary and subordinate. They are not the fundamental 


active forces which do things; their function is to restore balance. — 


Isostasy works in opposition to mountain folding; it works in op- 
position to erosion. When things are doing, or done, it tends to restore 
equilibrium. Limited thus, to its proper sphere, it is an important 
principle and should be used as such. 


PALEOBOTANY.—A new Pterophyllum from the Shinarump con- 
glomerate in Utah... Epwarp W. Berrry, Johns Hopkins 
University. 


The remains of terrestrial plants are so infrequent and so poorly 
preserved in the continental Triassic of the southwest that the dis- 
covery of material sufficiently complete to be identified with certainty 
deserves to be recorded. It was collected by Mr. Arthur A. Baker 
during the field season of 1928 and may be described as follows: 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received 
August 1, 1930. ; 


= 
i ee 


Nov. 4, 1930 BERRY: NEW PTEROPHYLLUM 459 


Pterophyllum bakeri Berry, n. sp. 


Fronds oblong in youth, somewhat obovate in outline at maturity, of 
variable size, preserved for lengths of 20 centimeters and varying in maximum 
width from 2.5 to 9 centimeters. Rachis stout. Pinnules inserted at the 
sides, closely spaced, subopposite to alternate, united by the whole base, 
which is neither narrowed nor decurrent, linear in form, with truncated tips 
rounded at the corners. ‘The pinnules are for the most part nearly straight 
and symmetrical, but they may curve upward slightly in their distal halves; 
their angle of divergence from the rachis varies with their position on the 
frond, the median ones in the most complete specimen collected are at 
angles approaching 90°, but they become more ascending toward the apex 
and terminate in an odd-pinnate pinnule. There doubtless was considerable 
variation from frond to frond with respect to the attitude of the pinnules, 
since in some specimens they appear uniformly ascending at angles of about 
70°. They appear to have been rigid and coriaceous. The veins appear 
simple and parallel but are not especially clear, and some may bifurcate near 
their origin, although the undiminished width of the pinnule renders this 
unlikely. The veins are thin and from 14 to 21 per pinnule. , 

One fragment shows short, less truncate proximal pinnules less than a 
centimeter in length, and 6 centimeters higher up they are 3 centimeters 
long. The following measurements will give an adequate idea of the propor- 
tions of the pinnules: Distal, 2.5x0.5 centimeters; median maximal, 1x4.5 
centimeters; proximal, 3.5x10 millimeters. It appears to me that all of the 
specimens collected at this outcrop belong to a single species. 

The species is considered new and is named for the collector, Arthur A. 
Baker. It comes from the top of the Shinarump conglomerate near the 
southwest corner of sec. 26, T. 41 8., R. 12 E., on the east side of Nokai 
Creek, Utah. 


The material is abundant but somewhat fragmentary and is in the form of 
impressions with the frond substance entirely oxidized away. It shows con- 
siderable variation in size, length, and attitude of the pinnules but is believed 
to represent a single species. ‘Two specimens showing the extremes of size 
are figured, and I have reconstructed an entire frond from the various parts 
illustrated by the various fragmentary specimens. 


The various so-called genera of cycadophytes based upon frond 
characters are not especially precise, nor are authors agreed regarding 
their limits. Pterophyllum, to which the present species is referred, 
is most likely to be confused with Zamites or Nilssonia. In Zamiies 
the pinnules are not truncate tipped, and they are contracted at the 
base which is attached to the upper surface of the rachis. In Nilssonia 
the pinnules are short and truncate, but the frond may be entire or 
split up into segments of unequal width, and the lamina of the two 
sides meets in the center of the upper side of the rachis to which 
they are attached. In Pterophyllum the pinnules are of uniform 
width, are usually elongate, and are attached to the sides of the rachis. 

No described American species of Pterophyllum are especially close 


460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 18 


to the present species, although it is possible that some very incom- 
plete pinnules from the Jelm formation (“‘Popo Agie beds’’) of Fremont 
County, Wyoming, which I have recorded as Pterophyllum? sp.? might 
represent it. These show neither habit of attachment or tips and 
have somewhat fewer veins per pinnule and might equally well represent 
Zamites or Pterophyllum. 





Fig. 1. Pterophyllum bakeri, natural size 


Newberry described a Pte: ophyllum from the Triassic of Los Bronces, 
Sonora, Mexico, under the two names of fragile? and delicatulum, 


2 Berry, Epwarp W., Jour. Geology, 32: 494, fig. 3, 1924. 
3 In Macomb’s Explor. Exped., p. 144, pl. 6, figs. 6, 6a, 1876. 


461 


NEW PTEROPHYLLUM 


BERRY 


Noy. 4, 1930 





Fig. 2, Pterophyllum bakeri, reduced 1/8 


462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 18 


which is somewhat similar to the present species. It is said to be of 
a delicate texture whereas the present form is coriaceous, the rachis 
is also more slender, although the two specimens which Newberry 
figures differ considerably in this and other respects, and his Figure 
6a is more similar to the Utah form. The material is fragmentary and 
poorly preserved, and it is impossible to arrive at any satisfactory 
conclusions concerning it. 





Fig. 3. Reconstruction of Pterophyllum bakert 


The genus is abundantly represented in the Triassic of Europe and 
other parts of the world, and several European species, such as P. 
meriant Brongniart, P. longifolium Brongniart, P. jaegert Brongniart, 
and P. brevipenne Kurr, are abundant and have been discussed by 
numerous students during the last 100 years. 


i 


Nov. 4, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 463 


The first of these is probably a young frond of one of the others, 
as Schimper long ago suggested, and the others show a great amount 
of variation. P. jaegerz is distinctly different from the Utah form, but 
certain Swiss specimens referred to P. longifolium, e.g. one figured by 
Heer,‘ are exceedingly like the Utah species. The chief differences 
are the more oblong frond outline, the slightly narrower and more 
openly spaced pinnules, the fewer veins per pinnule, and the longer 
proximal pinnules of the Swiss specimen. I consider the American 
form specifically distinct, but the resemblance is great. P. longifolium 
is a Keuper species. 

The genus appears in considerable abundance in the later Paleozoic, 
becoming cosmopolitan and reaching its zenith in the Rhaetic, con- 
tinuing abundant through the Jurassic and dying out in the mid- 
Cretaceous. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


W. J. Humpwreys of the U.S. Weather Bureau has received the following 
letter from Sir JosepH Larmor, relative to the account of the Philosophical 
Society of Washington through a Thousand Meetings which appeared in this 
JOURNAL for July 19, 1930: “‘I have been more than delighted to receive 
the handsome set of portraits of the heroes of the Washington Academy 
[Philosophical Society], to not a few of whom I can apply the Tennysonian 
phrase ‘the great Ulysses whom I knew.’ The only things approaching 
it in interest that I possess are a Vienna set of 30 years ago in honour of 
Victor von Lang and the Berlin account of the German Physical Society in 
Wissenschaften. I was interested to see if I could identify you, also by the 
predominantly Anglo-Saxon type, if I may so guess, of those days.”’ 


L. W. Currinr has been appointed Assistant Geologist in the United 
States Geological Survey and has been assigned to work in the Metalliferous 
Section. 


JosiAH Bripce has been appointed Paleontologist in the United States 
Geological Survey, with headquarters at the National Museum. 


Lee T. RicHAarpDsoN has been appointed Junior Chemist in the United 
States Geological Survey. 


Frank M. Weipa, Assistant Professor of mathematics at Lehigh Univer- 
sity, has been appointed Associate Professor of mathematics at The George 
Washington University. Dr. Weida is a specialist in mathematical statistics, 
actuarial theory, and practical mathematical analysis. 


RAYMOND JOHN SEEGER has been appointed Assistant Professor of physics 
at The George Washington University. 


4 HEER, Oswa Lb, Flora Fossilis Helvetiae, pl. 33, fig. 1, 1876. 





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CONTENTS 


ORIGINAL PAPERS 








iy. Veh 


I, Some problems of mountain ETS and Eieanies sna 
R. meses Sdn eS eo. = rf 


eats: 
Geotherms. A. c. oe tees es 


on» 


ma ‘tr 
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SclENTIFIC Notes nd Bho ae l 


This JourNat lia a ae Oe ere 


© 


Vox. 20 ee : NOVEMBER 19, 1930 No. 19 





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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 NovEeMBER 19, 1930 No. 19 


BOTANY .—Mosses collected in Brazil and Argentina by J. N. Rose in 
1915.1 R. S. Wiiurams, New York Botanical Garden. (Com- 
municated by WiLL1AM R. Maxon) 

The mosses reported upon in the present paper are part of a large 
botanical collection made in Brazil and Argentina in 1915, upon an 
expedition conducted by Dr. J. N. Rose under the auspices of the 
Carnegie Institution of Washington and the New York Botanical 
Garden, the principal object of the exploration having been to collect 
cacti. Dr. Rose was accompanied by Paul G. Russell, detailed by the 
U.S. National Museum as assistant. The mosses listed are in the U.S. 
National Herbarium and the herbarium of the New York Botanical 
Garden. 


SPHAGNUM MAGELLANICUM Brid. 


Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20486). This species, largely 
under the name of S. medium, is known from Alaska southward, also from 
Europe, Asia, and Africa. 


SPHAGNUM SUBSECUNDUM Nees 


Locality and date of preceding (20508). Largely known as S. platyphyllum, 
and of about as wide distribution as the preceding. (I am indebted to Dr. 
A. LeRoy Andrews for the determination of these Sphagnums.) 


DITRICHUM RUFESCENS Hampe 
Locality and date of preceding (20544). Not before credited to Brazil, I 
believe, but found on the west coast southward to Chile. 
CERATODON STENOCARPUS Br. & Sch. 


_Loeality and date of preceding (20527, 20544). Common in tropical re- 
gions of the Old World also. 


1 Received September 3, 1930. 


466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 19 


AONGSTROEMIA VAGINATA (Hook.) C. M. 


Locality and date of preceding (20449a). No. 60 of E. Ule’s mosses of 
Brazil, called A. julaceo-divaricata C. M., does not seem to be distinct from 
this species. 

DICRANELLA EXIGUA (Schwaegr.) Mitt. 

Itacurussa, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 24 (20423, 20426). 


DICRANELLA GUILLEMINIANA (Mont.) Hampe 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20576). 


DICRANELLA H1ILARIANA (Mont.) Mitt. 


Vicinity of Bahia, Brazil, May 29 (19689). Monte Serrat, vicinity of 
Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20443, 20446). Near Milo Pecanna, State of 
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 9 (20734); very poor specimens but probably 
belonging here. This species occurs commonly from the southern United 
States to southern Brazil and has been described under a great variety of 
names. 


DIcRANELLA PasstTraNna (C. M.) Mitt. 
On Corcovado, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 12; marked ‘“‘h.” 


DICRANELLA SUBSULCATA Hampe 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20578; 20450, immature but prob- 
ably belonging here). ‘Tijuca, vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 1 
(20629). 
CAMPYLOPODIUM PUSILLUM (Schpr.) Williams 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20545a). Ule’s no. 102 from this 
region, called C. ztatzazense, does not seem to me distinct. 
HOLOMITRIUM ARBOREUM Mitt. 7 
Vicinity of Toca de Onca, Brazil, June 27-29 (20122). Vicinity of Itatiaya, 
Brazil, July 26-30 (20548). 
HOLOMITRIUM CRISPULUM Mart. 
Forests of Jabaquara, Brazil, Aug. 15 (20860, 20864). 


HOLOMITRIUM OLFERSIANUM Hsch. 
Ilha Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 22-24 (20391). 


CAMPYLOPUS ARCTOCARPUS (Hsch.) Mitt. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20509). 
CAMPYLOPUS DETONSUS (Hampe) Par. 
Vicinity of Bahia, Brazil, May 30 (19696). Sterile. 


CAMPYLOPUS INTROFLEXUS (Hedw.) Mitt. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20474). 


NOVEMBER 19, 1930 WILLIAMS: MOSSES FROM BRAZIL AND ARGENTINA 467 


CAMPYLOPUS PENICILLATUS (Hsch.) Jaeg. 
Locality and date of preceding (20434). — 


CAMPYLOPUS SUBARCTOCARPUS (Hampe) Jaeg. 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20811). On Papagaya, 
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 1 (20698b). 
CAMPYLOPUS SP.? 
Near Santos, Brazil, Sept. 20 (2/111). Sterile. 


CAMPYLOPUS SP. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20548a). Sterile. 


PILOPOGON sUBJULACEUS Hampe 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20545, 204774). 


LEUCOBRYUM ALBICANS (Schwaegr.) Lindb. 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20858). 


OcTOBLEPHARUM ALBIDUM (L.) Hedw. 


Vicinity of Bahia, Brazil, May 26 (19633, 19642). Ilha Grande, Distrito 
Federal, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 22-24 (20388). 


FIsSIDENS OBTUSATUS Hampe 
Ilha Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 22-24 (20389). 


FISSIDENS PSEUDOBRYOIDES Schlph. 


Vicinity of Bahia, Brazil, May 30 (19704) and June 3 (20139a). Sao 
Miguel, State of Bahia, Brazil, June 26 (20055). This determination as F. 
pseudobryoides appears to be correct, but on further study it would seem that 
the species is not sufficiently distinct from the older F. Kegelianus. 


CALYMPERES RicHarpi C. M. 
Vicinity of Bahia, Brazil, May 26 (19632). 


HYMENOSTOMUM MicAcEUM (Schlecht.) Hampe 

Vicinity of Bom Finn, Bahia, Brazil, June 8, 9 (19830). Vicinity of Cabo 
Frio, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 8 (20730). This species is distinguished 
by having the costa quite papillose on the upper surface from near the apex 
about two-thirds of the way down, the back of the leaf and costa being smooth 
or slightly papillose, and the upper surface of leaf mostly mamillose. Known 
only from Brazil until collected at Frederiksted, St. Croix, West Indies, by 
Rose, Fitch and Russell, in Feb. 1913, no. 4448. 


TIMMIELLA UMBROSA (C. M.) Broth. 
Near Cassaffousth, Cordoba, Argentina, Sept. 9 (21068). 


468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 19 


DipyMopon ScuimPeERI (Mont.) Broth. 


Portrerillos, Mendoza, Argentina, Sept. 2 (20998). Apparently not known 
previously outside of Chile. 


TORTELLA CAESPITOSA (Schwaegr.) Limpr. 


Vicinity of Toca de Onca, Bahia, Brazil, June 27-29 (20118). Ilha 
Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 22-24 (20386, 20387, 
20392). Monte Serrat, vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20444). 
Near Iguaba Grande, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 7-9 (20715). Petropolis, 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20829). Near Cassaf- 
fousth, Cordoba, Argentina, Sept. 9 (21066). On Corcovado,'Rio de Janeiro, 
Brazil, July 19, marked ‘‘a.”’ 


HYOPHILA MICROCARPA (Besch.) Broth. 


Salgada, State of Bahia, Brazil, June 1 (19712). Queimadas, Bahia, 
Brazil, June 9-17 (19861, 19882). Vicinity of Machado Portello, Bahia, 
Brazil, June 19-23 (19934, 19997). 


HYOPHILA TORTULA (Schwaegr.) Hampe 
State of Bahia, Brazil, May 31 (19707). Alagoinhas, State of Bahia, 
Brazil, June 12 (19883). 
BARBULA UNCINICOMA C. M. 
Near Cassaffousth, Cérdoba, Argentina, Sept. 9 (21067). 


DESMATODON STOMATODONTUS (Card.) Williams 
Vicinity of Bahia, Brazil, May 25 (19620), mixed with Tortula agraria 
Sw. Same locality, June 15 (19892). 


; TORTULA AGRARIA Sw. 
Vicinity of Bahia, Brazil, May 25 (19620a). 


Tortula perrufula (C. M.) Williams, comb. nov. 


Barbula perrufula C. M. Hedwigia36: 103. 1897. Thisseems to belong 
rather to Tortula, inasmuch as there is no stereid band on the upper side of 
the costa. It has leaf margins of a double thickness of cells, 32 twisted 
teeth from a rather high basal membrane, and an annulus of 2 or 3 rows of 
cells. 


GLYPHOMITRIUM BALANSAE (Besch.) Broth. 


Near Cassaffousth, Cordoba, Argentina, Sept. 9 (21/064). Here must be 
referred G. brevifolium C. M., which apparently is not distinct in any way 
from G. Balansae. 


ZYGODON SUBDENTICULATUS Hampe 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20512). Not previously credited 
to Brazil. 
MACROMITRIUM FRAGILE Mitt. 
On orchids in market, Bahia, Brazil, May 26 (19643). 


NOVEMBER 19, 1930 WILLIAMS: MOSSES FROM BRAZIL AND ARGENTINA 469 


MAcCROMITRIUM MUCRONIFOLIUM (Hook. & Grev.) Schwaegr. 


Ilha Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 22-24 (20380). 
Near Santos, Brazil, Sept. 20 (21115). 


SCHLOTHEIMIA NITIDA Schwaegr. 
Tijuca, vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 1 (20632). 


SCHLOTHEIMIA RUGIFOLIA (Hook.) Brid. 


Vicinity of Toca de Onca, Bahia, Brazil, June 27-29 (20122a). North 
of Caldeirao, State of Bahia, Brazil, June 30 (20134). | 


TETRAPLODON I[TaTIAIAE C. M. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20475). 


FUNARIA APIAHYENSIS (C. M.) Broth. 


Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20558, mixed with Pszlopilu 
ler). i 


FUNARIA CALVESCENS Schwaegr. 


Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20451, 20466, 20467, 20468, 
20595). 


FUNARIA HYGROMETRICA (L.) Sibth. 
Vicinity of Buenos Aires, Argentina, Aug. 28 (20960). 


| FUNARIA SERRICOLA (C. M.) Broth. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20465). Tijuca, vicinity of Rio de 
Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 1 (20626). 


MiELICHHOFERIA MANCA (C. M.) Broth. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20539, 20546). 


BRYUM ARGENTEUM L. 

Aramary, State of Bahia, Brazil, May 31 (19708). Sao Miguel, State 
of Bahia, Brazil, June 26 (20054). Vicinity of Toca de Onca, Bahia, Brazil, 
June 27-29 (20121). Jha Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 
July 22-24 (20355). Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20547, mixed 
with a sterile Campylopus). 


Bryum CrucEeri Hampe; C. M. 


Vicinity of Toca de Onca, Bahia, Brazil, June 27-29 (20119). Near 
Santos, Brazil, Sept. 20 (21112). Apparently not before reported for Brazil. 


BRYUM DENSIFOLIUM Brid. 


Near Santos, Brazil, Sept. 20 (21113). Vicinity of Toca de Onca, Bahia, 
Brazil, June 27-29 (20120). Alta Boa Vista, vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, 
Brazil, July 18 (20306). 


470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 19 


BryuM GARDNERI Mitt. 
Near Santos, Brazil, Sept. 20 (21114). 


RHODOBRYUM GRANDIFOLIUM (Tayl.) Par. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20575). 


MNIUM LIGULATUM C. M. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20577). Organ Mountains, Rio 
de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20776, 20806). 
RHIZOGONIUM SPINIFORME (L.) Bruch 
On Papagaya, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 1 (20647). Organ Mountains, 
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20810, 20822). 
. PHILONOTIS CURVATA (Hampe) Jaeg. 
Nazareth, vicinity of Bahia, Brazil, June 30 (20139). 


PHILONOTIS UNCINATA (Schwaegr.) Brid. 
Tijuca, vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 1 (20637). 


OLIGOTRICHUM RIEDELIANUM (Mont.) Mitt. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July. 26-30 (20449, 20556a). 


PsILoPituM ULeEI Broth. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20465a, 20555, 20558a). 


POLYTRICHADELPHUS UMBROsUS Mitt. 
On Corcovado, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 11, marked “‘f.”’ 


POGONATUM ABBREVIATUM Mitt. 
Monte Serrat, vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20447). 


PoGONATUM GARDNERI (C. M.) Mitt. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20556). 


POLYTRICHUM ANGUSTIFOLIUM Mitt. 
Vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 26-30 (20436). 


POLYTRICHUM ANTILLARUM Rich. 

Vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 26-30 (20436a). Vicinity of Ita- 
tiaya, Brazil, July 26-380 (20448, 20452, 20530, and “‘k’’). Petropolis, 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20827). 

ERPODIUM CORONATUM (Hook. f. & Wils.) Mitt. 

Vicinity of Machado Portello, Bahia, Brazil, June 19-23 (19996). 


Erpopium Guaziovir Hampe 
On Corcovado, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 17 (20875). 


NOVEMBER 19, 1930 WILLIAMS: MOSSES FROM BRAZIL AND ARGENTINA 471 


RuacocarPpus HumBoupti (Hook.) Lindb. 
Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20508a, 20521). 


ORTHOSTICHOPSIS TENUIS (C. M.) Broth. 
On Corcovado, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 11, marked “‘j.”’ 


SQUAMIDIUM NITIDUM (Sull.) Broth. 
North of Caldeirao, State of Bahia, Brazil, June 30 (20133). 


LINDIGIA CAPILLACEA (Hornsch.) Hampe 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20781b). No. 70 of 
EK. Ule’s Brazilian mosses, issued as L. paupera C. M., apparently an un- 
published name, evidently belongs here. 
LINDIGIA TRIcHOMITRIA C. M. 
Collected with the last preceding (20781a). 


> PHYLLOGONIUM IMMERSUM Mitt. 
On Papagaya, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 5 (20648). 


NECKERA ARGENTINICA Lor. 
Tucum§én, vicinity of Buenos Aires, Argentina, Aug. 29 (without number), 


PorotTrRicHUM KoRTHALSIANUM (Dz. & Mb.) Mitt. 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20821). Previously 
collected only in Venezuela and Surinam. 
POROTHAMNIUM STRIATUM (Mitt.) Fleisch. 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20772). 


STEREOPHYLLUM LEUCOSTEGUM (Brid.) Mitt. 
Rio Branco, State of Bahia, Brazil, June 12 (19877). 


Fasronia Lorentzit C. M. 
Vicinity of Cérdoba, Argentina, Sept. 8 (21039). 


FABRONIA POLYCARPA Hook. 

Bahia, Brazil, May 28 (19660). Vinicity of Bom Finn, Bahia, Brazil, 
June 8, 9 (19829, 19831). On Corcovado, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 17 
(20875, 20876). 

HELICODONTIUM TENUIROSTRE Schwaegr. 

Tijuca, vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 1 (20631). 


HooxkeEriopsis BEYRICHIANA (Hampe) Broth. 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20808a). 


HooxkERIoPsis GLAzIovil (Hampe) Jaeg. 
Tijuca, vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 1 (20633). 


472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 19 


LEPIDOPILUM SUBULATUM Mitt. 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janiero, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20781). 


HYPOPTERYGIUM MONOICUM Hampe 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20775). 


HELICOPHYLLUM TORQUATUM (Hook.) Brid. 
Itumirim, State of Bahia, Brazil, June 5 (19815). 


HAPLOCLADIUM RIOGRANDENSE C. M. 
Jardim Botanico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 10 (20745). 


THUIDIUM DELICATULUM (L.) Mitt. 


Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, July 26-30 (20472a, 20557). T. brasiliense 
Mitt. is near this species, but has larger leaf cells and larger, higher papillae. 


THUIDIUM PSEUDORECOGNITUM (Hampe) Broth. 


Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 20 (20772a). This species 
appears to come nearest to T. Antillarum, from which it is distinguished by 
the cells of the branch leaves having several papillae to each cell-surface 
instead of only one. The inner perichaetial leaves are long-ciliate. Small, 
often scarcely elongate cells extend almost to the leaf-base in both stem and 
branch leaves, and in the branch leaves the costa is very prominent and 
rough on the back. 


AMBLYSTEGIUM VARIUM (Hedw.) Lindb. 


La Plata, Argentina, Sept. 14 (21106). KE. Ule’s no. 73, A. pulchellum C. 
M., apparently an unpublished name, seems to belong here. 


Microthamnium Russellii R. S. Williams, sp. nov. 
Figs. 1-13 


Dioicous, o flowers, about midway on the branches, rather narrowly 
ovate-acute, a little over 1 mm. high, the inner perigonial leaves with ovate 
base rather gradually narrowed to a lanceolate, serrulate point, enclosing 5-6 
antheridia about .33 mm. long and a few slender paraphyses; plants growing 
in pale yellowish-brown mats with more or less trailing and branching stems 
mostly 3 or 4 em. long, bearing scattered clusters of radicles and rather short, 
mostly .5-1 cm. long, often divided branches hardly complanate and tapering 
to apex; leaves not complanate, those of the upper stem shortly bicostate, 
about 1.5 mm. long, from a broadly ovate base gradually tapering to a very 
acute point, the borders more or less recurved and serrulate to near base; 
leaves of lower stem mostly shorter and broader than above and ecostate and 
entire; branch-leaves narrower and smaller than upper stem leaves, serrulate 
and bicostate except the much smaller apical leaves, these ecostate; cells 
of the branch-leaves mostly distinctly papillose on back at upper end, the 
median about 5yu wide by 35-50u long, the alar cells sometimes forming a 
rather distinct group of wider, shorter cells; seta 2-2.5 em. long; inner peri- 
chaetial leaves longer than stem-leaves, ecostate, from an ovate or lanceolate 
base gradually narrowed to a very slender, entire or nearly entire point; cap- 


NOVEMBER 19, 1930 WILLIAMS: MOSSES FROM BRAZIL AND ARGENTINA 473 


\ 












Np MG 


Microthamnium Russellii: 1. Plant about natural size. 2. Middle stem-leaf X35. 
3. Middle branch-leaf X35. 4. Terminal branch-leaf X35. 5. Perigonial leaf, an- 
theridium and paraphyses X35. 6 and 7. Inner perichaetial leaves X35. 8. Apex of 
branch leaf X210. 9. Median cells of leaf X210. 10. Dried deoperculate capsule X14. 
11. Moistened capsule X14. 12. Group of alar cells from upper stem leaf X210. 13. 
Part of peristome and annulus <150. 


474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 19 


sule nodding or pendant, oblong or often unsymmetrical, about 2 mm. long 
with the acutely pointed lid, when dry contracted below the rim; annulus of 
two rows of cells; peristome-teeth finely cross-striate about three fourths up, 
the slender apex papillose; segments a little shorter than teeth, from high 
basal membrane, finely papillose, slightly or not split along median line, with 
2 or 3 slender, papillose cilia a little shorter than the segments; calyptra 
smooth; spores minutely roughened, 10-12y in diameter. 

Type locality: Vicinity of Itatiaya, Brazil, collected by J. N. Rose and 
P. G. Russell, July 26-30, 1915, No. 20469 (type in herbarium of the New 
York Botanical Garden). 

Plants much like M. reptans but perichaetial leaves more entire, with 
eee hair-point, capsules rather larger and not so narrowed at the base and 

ioicous. 


ISOPTERYGIUM BRACHYNEURON (C. M.) :Mitt. 
Ilha Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 22-24 (20382). 


ISOPTERYGIUM TENERUM (Sw.) Mitt. 
Locality and date of the last preceding (20384). 


TRICHOSTELEUM PAPILLOSISSIMUM (Hampe) Broth. 


Itacurussa, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 24 (20425). Determined 
from description only. 


Trichosteleum Schlimii (C. M.) Williams, comb. nov. 


Hypnum Schlimi C. M. Bot. Zeit. 6: 781. 1848. This species has been 
placed under both Sematophyllum and Rhaphidostegium and. doubtless 
specimens that have been called Schlzmiz belong under those genera; Miiller, 
however, in his description cites only one number, 356, collected by Funck & 
Schlim in Venezuela. The specimens under this number show the back of 
the leaf often with more or less numerous, single papillae over the center of 
the cells, which are very long and narrow (about 4u wide by 50-60y long) 
with the exception of the inflated alar group. This type specimen has peri- 
chaetial leaves with long, slender, recurved points, serrulate with often widely 
spreading, almost recurved teeth; the stem leaves are ecostate; the capsule is 
nodding, mostly not quite symmetrical, on a smooth pedicel about 1 em. 
long. Organ Mountains, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20812). 


Sematophyllum cyparissoides (Hornsch.) Williams, comb. noy. 


Hypnum cyparissoides Hornsch. in Mart. Fl. Bras 17: 88. 1840. This 
species has the peristome teeth not furrowed along the median line. 


SEMATOPHYLLUM GALIPENSE (C. M.) Mitt. 


Tijuca, vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 1 (20625). On Papagaya, 
Rio de Janeiro, Aug. 1 (20650). Jardim Botanico, Rio de Janeiro, Aug. 11 
(20836). On Corcovado, Rio de Janeiro, Aug. 19, marked “‘c.”” Garden of 
Museo Paulista, SAo Paulo, Brazil, Aug. 14, 15 (20842). Near Santos, Brazil, 
Sept. 20 (21110). 


NOVEMBER 19, 1930 EVANS: ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN OKLAHOMA 475 


SemaTopHynium Mariusian C. M. 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20780). 


SEMATOPHYLLUM SUBPINNATUM (Brid.) E. G. Britt. 


Tijuca, vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 1 (20630 in part). Near 
Iguaba Grande, Rio de Janeiro, Aug. 7-9 (20749). Petropolis, Organ Moun- 
tains, Rio de Janeiro, Aug. 12 (20826, 20831). Jardim Botanico, Rio de 
Janeiro, Aug. 11 (20835). Garden of Museo Paulista, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 
Aug. 14, 15 (20869). Near Santos, Brazil, Sept. 20 (20899). 


RHYNCHOSTEGIUM BrEsKEANUM (C. M.) Jaeg. 


Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20777). Petropolis, 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Aug. 12 (20828). 


RHYNCHOSTEGIUM SELLOW1I (Hornsch.) Jaeg. 
On Corcovado, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, July 14, marked “‘d.”’ 


RHYNCHOSTEGIUM SUBROTUNDUM (Hampe) Jaeg. 
Organ Mountains, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 12 (20778). 


ANTHROPOLOGY .—The antiquity of man as shown at Frederick, 
Oklahoma: A criticism... O. F. Evans, University of Oklahoma. 
(Communicated by A. HRDLICKA) 

The Holloman gravel pit at Frederick, Okla., has yielded fossils and 
artifacts which are thought by some persons to indicate a great an- 
tiquity for man in America. In the light of my rather extensive expe- 
rience in that region, I wish to point out what I believe to be some 
serious mistakes which have been made in the interpretation of the 
evidence. 

The deposits rest on Red Beds which are probably of Permian age. 
The lower four or five feet consists of consolidated cross-bedded sand, 
clean pebbles, and boulders up to five or six inches in diameter. The 
coarse material is found in the lower part and except for being consoli- 
dated is the same as that found in the bottom of most streams in the 
region at the present time. ‘These streams have the coarser material 
at the bottom of the sand and boulder beds, not only because the streams 
come nearer and nearer to grade as the material in the bottom is 
deposited but also because rapid changes in velocity, resulting from 
the numerous floods, keep the loose material of the stream beds agi- 
tated and hence the larger materials work toward the bottom as in a 
miner’s pan. ; 


1 Received September 25, 1930. 


476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 19 


This cross-bedded sandstone and conglomerate represents the early 
normal period of the old stream’s history. In the Frederick pit it is 
more tightly cemented than the material higher up because it lies at 
about the top of the ground-water level and has been subjected to more 
wetting and drying by the rising and falling of the ground-water table 
than has the material of the upper layers. 

Above this old river bottom is a middle layer, ten to twelve feet 
thick, of water-deposited material, consisting of sand, gravel and small 
boulders. The materials are in great variety. Some can be recognized 
as having come from the Wichita mountains a few miles to the north, 
but much has the same source as other numerous gravel and sand 
deposits in that part of southwestern Oklahoma, west of the Wichita, 
whose source was somewhere to the west toward the Rocky mountains. 

It contains in particular the same varieties of igneous rocks and 
schists that are found in other deposits all along the present North 
Fork of the Red River at elevations of about 70 to 80 feet above the 
present stream bed. These other deposits also contain numerous 
animal remains similar to those of the Holloman pit, such as tusks, thigh 
bones, ete., which on casual examination appear to be what are gener- 
ally referred to as of Pleistocene age. Gravel deposits containing such 
animal remains, but of course varying as to the nature of the rock 
materials, are found lying 60 to 100 feet above the present stream beds 
along nearly all the streams in the whole of western Oklahoma. 

' This would seem to be fairly good evidence of a post-Pleistocene uplift 

over this region. All we can say at present as to the time of this uplift 
is that it occurred long enough ago so that the streams have since had 
time to cut down to their present level. Unfortunately there is so 
little known by geologists about the actual rate of erosion for any 
particular area that to try to fix the length of a period of time in years 
on any such basis is no better than a guess. Neither do we know the 
rate of the uplift nor how long it continued. Like most such uplifts 
it was probably gradual and any streams that may have been aggrad- 
ing or in equilibrium, were slowly changed to degrading streams. 

Above this layer of water-deposited sands and gravels is an upper 
layer of several feet of material that appears to be partly water- and 
partly wind-deposited, taking on more and more of the character of 
wind-deposited material higher up. The middle part of this layer 
contains some aggregates of calcareous material whose origin so far 
has not been satisfactorily explained. 


NOVEMBER 19, 1930 EVANS: ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN OKLAHOMA 477 


The ridge on which the gravel pit is located extends to the northwest 
to about where Otter creek appears to have once joined the North 
Fork of Red River, and contains at several places stream gravels similar 
to those of the Holloman pit. A study of the region suggests very 
strongly to anyone familiar with the work of streams of Oklahoma and 
the southwest that the present lower course of the North Fork of the 
Red, a few miles west of Frederick, is in the course of a stream that 
committed piracy on the stream that laid down the gravels of the 
Holloman pit. If this is the case, the Holloman pit is in the bed of 
what was formerly the North Fork of the Red. We have no way of 
knowing how long ago this act of piracy was completed and any at- 
tempt to determine it from rate of erosion would be idle speculation, 
since we do not know how large a valley the more westerly stream had 
eroded before the piracy was committed, nor do we know anything 
about the rate of erosion in this particular area either before or after 
the piracy. 

The coarse, water-deposited material of the middle layer above the 
old stream bed means a quickening of the stream velocity and this 
might easily have occurred at the time of the post-Pleistocene uplift 
which would have also been a favorable time for the committing of the 
piracy by the rapid cutting headward of the more westerly stream. 

The lower part of the upper beds were apparently deposited in that 
period of the stream’s history when the river had not completely left 
its old channel and was still depositing during periods of high water. 
The uppermost part is wind-deposited material dropped there after 
the channel no longer contained a running stream. 

Arrowheads, metates and bones of Pleistocene animals, at least some 
of which have been identified by Hay as of Aftonian age, have been 
found in the middle layer and a few arrowheadlike artifacts have been 
found in the lower beds. So far no articulated skeletons have been 
found. The nearly complete carapace of a glyptodon was found and is 
now in the University of Oklahoma museum, but no part of its skeleton 
wasfound. ‘This fact indicates some disturbance of the animal remains 
since they were first buried. A few of the Pleistocene bones show much 
wear as though they had been transported a considerable distance, but 
most of them show but little wear. 

Metates are considered by anthropologists to have appeared rather 
late in the history of the human race, and the arrowheads found in the 
pit are also of a late type. In fact some of them look the same as those 
now frequently picked up on the surface in this region. 


478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 19 


The presence of the bones of Pleistocene animals mixed with metates 
and arrowheads is apparently considered by Cook, Figgins and some 
others as prima facie evidence of the existence of man on the earth at 
the same time as the animals which furnished the bones. It seems to 
be a case of trying to apply to land deposits a line of reasoning which 
is excellent for marine deposits, but which does not apply at all in the 
case of stream deposits. With rocks of marine origin we are quite 
justified in assuming that the animal remains found in them are of the 
same age as the sediments and that bones and shells once deposited 
with sediments on the bottom of the ocean were not disturbed before 
consolidation. ‘The general rule for marine deposits may be said to 
be continued stability after deposition. 

However any geologist after a little thought on the subject will be 
convinced that, in general, stream deposits are unstable. Any stream 
deposit is subject to disturbance at any time as long as a stream con- 
tinues to flow in the valley of the deposit. 

This being the case the line of reasoning regarding the Holloman 
gravel pit and the remains found in it is evident. 

1. It is a stream deposit. 

2. As a stream deposit it was subject to disturbance at any time 
up to the time the stream left the valley. 

3. There is no reliable evidence as to the time the stream which 
deposited the gravels left its valley, since calculations based on rate 
of erosion have no value. 

4. The coarser material of the middle layer shows an increase of 
velocity must have occurred. This might have been at the time of the 
post-Pleistocene uplift, but not necessarily. 

5. Since no articulated skeletons have been found in the pit it is 
probable that the skeletons have been disturbed since the original 
deposition. This disturbance may easily have been post-Pleistocene. 

6. If there has been a disturbance, the finding of metates and arrow- 
heads mixed with Pleistocene bones does not mean that the metates 
and arrowheads are of Pleistocene age. On the contrary the metates 
and arrowheads are just as good evidence of the age of the pit as are 
the bones. 

7. Since anthropologists have good reason to believe that the kind 
of arrowheads and the metates found here are of rather recent age, we 
are not justified in saying that the deposit indicates great antiquity of 
man in the region. 


NOVEMBER 19, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 479 


The geological history of the pit may have been about as follows. 
Piracy was committed by the stream to the west soon after the post- 
Pleistocene uplift, thus causing the old stream to leave the bed in 
which the gravel pit is found. The surrounding region had been 
considerably eroded before this occurred. Soon after the uplift and at 
about the time the piracy occurred, when the waters of the old stream 
were at flood stage and flowing rapidly, a gravel deposit, a little farther 
up the stream than the present one, was undercut and redeposited. 
This contained the bones now found in the Holloman pit, while the 
arrow heads and metates were on the surface where they had been left 
a comparatively short time before, and all went into the river and were 
redeposited together in what is now the Holloman gravel pit. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FREDERICK GRAVEL PIT 


Haroip J. Coox, New Trails of Early Man in America, Scientific Amer- 
ean, 1927: 114. 

J. D. Fiacins, The Antiquity of Manin America, Natural History, 27: 229, 
1927. 

Haroip J. Coox, New Geological and Paleontological Evidence Bearing 
on the Antiquity of Mankindin America. Natural History, 27: 240, 1927. 

J. D. Ficeins, Early Manin America. Science News Letter, 12: 215, 1927. 

Lestig Sprer, A Note on Reputed Ancient Artifacts from Frederick, 
Oklahoma. Science, 68: 184, 1928. 

Oxtver P. Hay, On the Antiquity of Relics of Man at Frederick, Okla- 
homa. Science, 67: 442, 1928. 

Haro.wp J. Coox, Further Evidence Concerning Man’s Antiquity at Fred- 
erick, Oklahoma. Science, 67: 371, 1928. 

Lesuige Sprer, Concerning Man’s Antiquity at Frederick, Oklahoma. 
Science News Letter, 67: 160-161, 1928. 

Cuas. N. Gouup, On the Recent Finding of Another Flint Arrowhead in 
the Pleistocene Deposit at Frederick, Oklahoma. This Jour., 19: 66-68, 
1929. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


An aquarium section in the new reptile house at the National Zoological 
Park has been endowed by Maj. LuicH Zmurszsz, U.S. A., in memory of his 
wife, FRaNcES BrINCKLE ZERBEE. Mrs. Zerbee was a great lover of 
aquaria, and the memorial is for the purpose of encouraging interest in home 
aquaria. ‘The income of the endowment is to be used to keep stocked with 
interesting specimens this section of the new reptile house. 


PauL W. Oman has been appointed by the Bureau of Entomology as a 
specialist in the order Homoptera, which includes principally the insects 
commonly known as leaf-hoppers. Mr. Oman, who studied these insects 
under Professor P. B. Lawson at the University of Kansas, will take charge of 
the collection of Homoptera at the National Museum. 


480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 19 


Dr. B. PrasHap of the Zoological Survey of India at Calcutta recently 
examined the types of mollusks in the Lea Collection at the National Museum. 


JOHN OLIVER LA Gorce was the guest of honor at a dinner given Novem- 
ber 5 at the Willard Hotel by the trustees of the National Geographic Society 
in celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of his association with the 
organization. 


G. A. Cooper has been appointed Assistant Curator in the Division of 
Stratigraphic Paleontology of the National Museum. For several years past, 
Dr. Cooper has been studying Paleozoic brachiopods at Yale University. 


Obituary 


FRANK JAMES Katz, a member of the AcapEmy, died on August 21, 1930. 
He was born at New York City January 27, 1883, received the degree of 
bachelor of arts from the University of Wisconsin in 1905, and held a fellow- 
ship in the department of geology at the University of Chicago in 1906-07. 
He was on the staff of the U. S. Geological Survey from 1907 until 1925, when 
he became Chief Engineer of the Division of Mineral Resources and Statistics 
of the U. 8. Bureau of Mines. | 


GEORGE McLane Woop, editor of the United States Geological Survey 
from 1908 to 1925, died in Washington October 26, in his 81st year. His ser- 
vice of nearly 40 years in the Geological Survey, as editorial clerk, assistant 
editor, and editor, left an enduring monument in the wide reputation for clear, 
terse expression attained by the published reports of that organization and 
exerted a far-reaching influence on scientific writing everywhere through 
his Suggestions to authors. This pamphlet, prepared primarily for use in 
the Geological Survey, proved to contain so much wise counsel of general 
application that it rapidly became a “best seller’? among Government pub- 
lications. It was first published in 1909 and was revised and enlarged twice. 
The third edition, issued in 1916, has been reprinted seven times—the latest 
printing of 1,000 copies in July, 1930—and sent to all parts of the world on 
request from writers of many classes, teachers of English in universities and 
colleges, research organizations, and business executives. After his retire- 
ment from the Government service Mr. Wood continued to do editorial 
work, and the demand for his assistance was so great that he worked longer 
hours than ever. At the time of his death he was editorial reader for the 
Bulletin of the Geological Society of America and the Arkansas Geological 
Survey. He wrote most of the articles on the geology of North and South 
America for the new Encyclopoedia Britannica. He died practically “in 
harness,” having been ill only three days. 





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CONTENTS 
ORIGINAL PAPERS | arts 


Botany.—Mosses collected in Brazil and Argentina be 3: N. | 
sore te eneeey? ecsoe Sad Ae 5 


cism. O. F, Bron. gn eee ee 


ScIENTIFIC Notes aND NWA aides vets oe po Soo ee 


Oxsituary: F. J. Katz, G. M. iro ee Sa ee 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 DECEMBER 4, 1930 No. 20 


MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS.—A ppell’s equations.1 R. J. SEEGER, 
The George Washington University. (Communicated by EpGar 
W. Woo.Lapb. ) 


Appell’s equations? describe the motion of a dynamic system. 
Their use involves two advantages of theoretical importance: The 
mathematical one of applicability to both holonomic and nonholonomic 
systems (such as do or do not have integrable relations connecting the 
coordinate-velocities) ; the physical one of immediate expressibility in 
terms of accelerations (cf. the methods of Lagrange and of Hamilton 
which start with codrdinates and velocites). However, the signifi- 
eance of the latter seems to be wholly superficial upon closer examina- 
tion of the usual derivation of the equations. For the basis is La- 
gerange’s formulation of D’Alembert’s principle—virtually a reduction 
of the dynamical problem to a statical one. Although this is a virtue in 
the light of practicability, it is logically vicious. Gibbs‘ has remedied 
this defect of the standard equations of motion by the postulation of a 
formula involving ‘“‘geometric’”’ accelerations instead of the ordinary 

“‘seometric”’ displacements. (It is to be remembered that all such vari- 
ations are mathematical inventions—not physical ones.) Moreover, 
he has shown his expression to be a more complete and a more accurate 
description of the laws of motion than the previous one. The question 
arises as to whether Appell’s equations can be derived on such a basis. 
‘We shall now consider this point. And, incidentally, the relativistic 
form of the equations on the Special Theory will be given. 

1 Received September 20, 1930. 

2P. APPELL. Sur une forme général des équations de la dynamique. (Memorial des 
sciences mathematiques). Paris, 1925. 


$J.S. Ames and F.D.Murnacuan. Theoretical mechanics, page 329. 1929. 
4J. W. Gress. On the fundamental formulae of dynamics. Am. Jour. Math. 1879: 49. 


481 


482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 20 


Suppose we have a dynamic system composed of m particles and 
possessing » degrees of freedom. Also, in addition to the r distinct 
generalized codrdinates there are s superfluous ones. All these are 
bound together by & relations of the following form: 


r+s 
Og We + 2s Pay = Op dO Ba ee (1) 
1 +1 


ar -+ 


t t4 > 


Q 


where d,s and bs are functions of the codrdinates g, and the time ¢ 
and where pag represent linear, differential functions of the same. 
Hence,n = 7 +s —k. This equation indicates the type of the sys- 
tem: holonomic if s can be made equal to k, non-holonomic if s must 
be less than k, (unsolvable for s > k) 

First we set up Gibbs’ equation in relativistic form for the Cartesian 
coordinates of the particles: 


m 3 d ; i” 
> a |X = (M,; ws) | 6 AS == 0 (2) 
i=17=1 dt 
where the symbols have their usual meanings. In order to transform 
this expression into one involving the generalized codrdinates only, 
we make use of certain relations (that must be given) of the following 
type: 











Pa eer ee, Oe 
Hence, 
5: need ay), Ree Ba ies bat eae ee 
“yO = a ad : = >> ve ie re 
: 20 -G d Ono d pe Ons q ay 


But the validity of equation (2) is conditioned by the vanishing of 
both 6g, and 6g, at a given instant. Thus we obtain 
: ies Bde, Liz : 
6 Ly = jt ys 3 
Me ere oe (3) 
not all the 6g, are independent. Therefore we must consider the 
modification in (3) due to equations (1). The independence of the 
latter and their linearity enable us to solve for k of the codrdinate- 
differentials, which can then be expressed linearly in terms of the 
remaining ones. Denoting the codrdinates by Q, after such a pro- 
cedure, we have 





DEC. 4, 1930 SEEGER: APPELL’S EQUATIONS 483 


Ogee A dO Bet er ne. 
y=1 


Subjecting the variations to the same conditions as above, we obtain 


5Q, = E Apy Qh +, Biese if 1.O0 


YS 


We now substitute these 5Q, in (3). Hence, 


Sts re 50). be (4) 


y=1 


and equation (2) becomes 

3 d } n ei 
p> D> = lan (M,; wi) | » Ci, 50,41 = 0 (5) 
=1j=1 dt y=1 


or 


n m 3 ad s a8 
y \ DD, 9) (| x, aaa (M,; i) | on, dQ), a oe 0 


But the 6Q, ., are arbitrary. Therefore 


m 3 d ‘ 
p> (Es = di (M,; iu) | =) =a) Y= | Rey (6) 
j=l 


7=1 


These are the equations of motion. 
As a matter of secondary interest, we shall now express these rela- 
tions in a more compact—but less convenient—form. For 


M.. 
[-@T 
CHG 


where M.,, is the rest-mass and c is the velocity of light. 
But z;; can be written 


m 3 d : 3 ae 
yy > E (M,; Li; ) on = D Ci, Xj. 
nese a j 


= 


ty = 2 Cin Ope eaO8 (7) 
pw 
where C;; represents the terms due to the explicit dependence on the 
time. : 


484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 20 
Likewise 
102 n ee - 
a 2 oer Quay ae Ce, Q, +¥ ta Ci (8) 
Y= 1 i 1 


M,, 
1- al. 
Re 


And from (8) we note that C;;, can be regarded as = (the  de- 


kty 


From (7) we conclude that is not a function of Os 3 


rivative being purely formal). Let 


>| 

Il 
'Ms 

M 

ps 

s 





7 iy 

t=1j=1 

and 
m 3 129 
M,, HOS 
he 2 ene AY 3/2 
(2) | 
C 
Then 
fee Se ke? (9) 

OQ, + » 


These equations can be identified with those of Appell for the non- 
relativistic case by a consideration of codrdinate-velocities small with 
respect to the velocity of light. For, our A then reduces to his ‘‘energy 
of the accelerations.”’ 


BOTANY.—The genus Trichanthera.1 Emmpry C. Lronarp, U. 8. 
National Museum. (Communicated by E. P. KiLx1P.) 


Until recently the genus Trichanthera of the Acanthaceae family 
was known from a single species, 7’. gigantea. It was fully described 
and finely illustrated by Humboldt and Bonpland as early as 1809? but 
was placed by them in the genus Ruellia. Their uncertainty as to the 
correctness of this course of action is shown by their remarks—“‘La 
plante que je viens d’écrire se trouve bien placée parmi les Acanthes; 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 


September 3, 1930. 
2 Pl. Aequin 2: 68. 1807. 





pDEc. 4, 1930 LEONARD: TRICHANTHERA 485 


mais il n’est pas facil de la rapporter 4 un des genéres connus de cet 
ordre, ou d’en établir un nouveau qui offre des charactéres bien tran- 
chés. Dans cette incertitude, j’ai préferé la rapporter au genére 
Ruellia, plutot que d’en établir un nouveau. Je donne 4 cette nouvelle 
plant le nom de Ruellia gigantea, parce que c’est un arbre trés élevé.”’ 

The name T'richanthera was introduced ten years later when Kunth 
redescribed? this well-marked species and added the following observa- 
tion, “‘Certe distincti generis ob stamina exserta, antheras pilosas et 
capsulae loculos dispermos. Fortasse Trichanthera nominandum.” 

In the present paper two species and one variety are described. 
These consist of attractive large-leaved shrubs or trees with silky 
reddish flowers crowded in terminal racemes or corymbs. 


KEY TO THE SPECIES 


Calyx lobes rounded; inflorescence racemose, secund; lower surface of leaf 


blades inconspicuously pubescent. ..........2..0.2..5 04. 1. T. gigantea. 
Calyx lobes acute; inflorescence corymbose; lower surface of leaf blades 
AMS wIEUOUShVya PUDESCEIG bu ml ote ee are ee ahi las ca 2. T. corymbosa. 


1. TRICHANTHERA GIGANTEA (Humb. & Bonpl.) Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 218. 

1847. 

Ruellia gigantea Humb. & Bonpl. Pl. Aequin. 2:68. pl. 102. 1807. 

Trixanthera angularis Raf. Fl. Tellur. 146. 1838. 

Shrub or tree up to 5 meters high (sometimes bushy and bearing adventi- 
tious roots); top round; twigs quadrate, the angles rounded, the tips minutely 
‘brown-tomentose; lenticels prominent, round, about 1 mm. in diameter; 
petioles 1 to 5 em. long, channeled, glabrous or minutely pubescent; leaf blades 
ovate to oblong, the largest seen 26 cm. long and 14 cm. broad, acuminate at 
apex, narrowed at base, entire or undulate, glabrous except the veins and mid- 
rib, these prominent and more or less pubescent; inflorescence a terminal 
campact, secund panicle 5 to 15 cm. long and 4 to 5 cm. broad, brown-tomen- 
tose; bracts triangular, 3-mm. long; calyx 10 to 12 mm. long, brown-tomen- 
tose, the lobes erect, oblong, 7 to 10 mm. long, 5 mm. broad, rounded at 
apex; corolla 3 to 4 cm. long, red and glabrous proximally, yellowish and silky 
tomentose distally, red and glabrous within, the tube 1 to 1.5 cm. long, 6 mm. 
broad, sometimes slightly swollen or curved, the throat campanulate, the limb 
2 to 3 cm. broad, the lobes oblong to oblong-ovate, 10 mm. long, 3 to 5mm. 
broad; stamens exserted, the filaments 3 to 3.5 mm. long, pilose below, glab- 
rous above, the anthers 6 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, bluntly apiculate at apex, 
bearded along the sutures, the hairs white and about 2 mm. long; ovary 
tomentose, 8-ovuled; style 4 to 5 em. long, glabrous; stigma 2-lobed, one lobe 
vestigial, the other subulate, 2 mm. long; capsule oblong, 1.5 to 2 em. long, 
0.5 cm. broad, obtuse at apex, silky pubescent with closely appressed hairs, 
retinacula 3 mm. long, curved, truncate and erose at tip; mature seeds 1 to 4 
-in each capsule, lenticular, glabrous, 3 to 4 mm. in diameter. 

Type locality: ‘‘In sylvis fluvii magdalenae prope Badillas,’’ Colombia. 
Specimens examined: 


7H. B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 2: 248. 1817. 


486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 20 





Fig. 1.—Trichanthera gigantea. In cultivation at Bucaramanga, Colombia. (Killip 
and Smith 15452.) 


Costa Rica: Moist forest of Tilarain, Province of Guanacaste, alt. 500 to 
650 meters, Standley and Valerio 46569 (N).4 Dry forests of Nicoya, Tonduz 
in 1900 (N). 


4N = U.S. National Museum; Y = Herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden; 
G = Gray Herbarium. 





DEC. 4, 1930 LEONARD: TRICHANTHERA 487 


Panama: Vicinity of Gatuncillo, Canal Zone, Piper 5606 (N). Along 
the Sambu River, southern Darien, above tide limit, Prtizer 5541 (N, Y). 
Forests around Pinogana, southern Darien, Pittcer 6544 (N, G). Wet forest, 
Rio Tapia, Province of Panama, Standley 26149 (N), 30662 (N). Juan Diaz, 
Province of Panama Standley 30542 (N). Narraganti, Willzams 1007 (N, Y). 

CotomBiA: Lehmann 3040 (N). Antioquia: vicinity of Medellin, Toro 
78 (Y). Fredonia, Archer 523 (N). Bolivar: Open forest, Sahagun, alt. 
150 to 200 meters, Pennell 4101 (N, G, Y), San Martin de Loba, Lands of 
Loba, Curran 54 (N). Tolima: Ibagué, Holton in 1853 (Y). Santander: In 
yard, Bucaramanga, alt. 1000 meters, Killip and Smith 15452 (N). Dry hill- 
side, Rio Surata valley, between El Jaboncillo and Suratd, alt. 1,500 to 1,800 
meters, Killip and Smith 16426 (N). Norte de Santander: Roadside thicket, 
Culaga Valley, near Tapata, alt. 1,500 to 2,100 meters, Killip and Smith 
20504 (N, Y); Western side of Culagd Valley, alt. 1,480 to 1,550 meters, 
Killip and Smith 20534 (N, G, Y). In open along trail between Chindcota 
and La Esmeralda, alt. 1,000 to 1,300 meters, Killip and Smith 20891 (N). 
Cundinamarca: El Colegio, Ariste-Joseph 1061 (N); Between La Mesa and 
Magdalena, Bogota, alt. 600 to 1,400 meters, Triana in 1851-57 (N, Y). 
El Valle: Thicket, “La Manuelita,” Palmira, alt. 1,090 to 1,110 meters, 
Pennell and Killip 6193 (Y). 

VENEZUELA: Between Valera and Monte Carmelo, Trujillo, alt. 535 to 
1,830 meters, Bellard in 1923 (N). Near Rio Cito, Mell in 1923 (Y). In 
hedge, Paso de Guanare, Portuguesa, Pittier 3951 (N, Y). 

Ecuapor: Provincia Manabi, Eggers 14823 (N). 

Peru: Near Tarapoto, Dept. of San Martin, Spruce 3951 (G). 


As in the case of many attractive plants this species bears several common 
names. In Costa Rica and Panama it is known as ‘‘palo de agua;” in Vene- 
zuela, “‘naranjillo;” in Colombia, ‘‘aro-blanco”’ and ‘‘rompebarringa.”’ 


TRICHANTHERA GIGANTEA GUIANENSIS Gleason, Bull. Torrey Club 54: 617. 
1927. 


Inflorescence 3 to 8 cm. long, 2 to 3 em. broad; corolla 3 to 4 em. long, yel- 
low and scarlet; filaments pilose throughout. 

BritisH GuraNna: Anabisi River, Northwest District, De La Cruz 1348 
(N, Hs Canaan, Demerara River, Jenman 5356 (Y). Barina River, Jenman 
7037 (Y). 3 

SURINAM: Paramaribo, Reyne in 1922 (N). 

Braziu: Parad: Breves, Killip and Smith 30230 (N, Y). 


Reyne found this tree planted as a windbreak in Surinam, where it is called 
“watra-hoedoe.” It differs from the typical form in much smaller inflores- 
cence and in the filaments being pilose throughout. 


2. Trichanthera corymbosa Leonard, sp. nov. 

Tree up to 3 m. high; twigs quadrangular, brownish tomentose, becoming 
gray and glabrous with age, the angles rounded, the nodes somewhat swollen, 
the lenticels prominent, round, about 0.5 mm. in diameter; petioles 1 to 5 em. 
long, brown-tomentose ; leaf blades ovate, 10 to 22 cm. long, 5 to 15 em. broad, 
acuminate, blunt at tip, rounded at base or abruptly narrowed and slightly 
decurrent on the petiole, somewhat oblique, firm, shallowly crenate, the 
upper surface bearing numerous cystoliths and a few scattered hairs, the 


488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 20 


lower surface tomentose, the veins (about 10 pairs) and midrib prominent 
and strongly tomentose; inflorescence corymbose, 10 to 20 cm. broad, the 
branches subquadrate and minutely brown-tomentose, the lenticels promi- 
nent; bracts small, leaflike, deciduous, those subtending the flowers triangular, 
2 to 3 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad; pedicel 2 to 5 mm. long, velvety brown- 
tomentose; calyx irregular (anterior lobe appreciably longer then the others), 
1.5 to 2.5 em. long, velvety brown-tomentose, the lobes oblong, 10 to 20 mm. 
long, 3 to 5 mm. broad, obtuse or acute, 5-nerved, the middle nerve more pro- 
nounced than the 4 lateral ones; corolla 3 em. long, the tube 5 to 6mm. broad, 
glabrous, the throat and lobes whitish or brown and densely tomentose with- 
out, purple and sparingly pubescent within, the limb 2.5 em. broad, the lobes 
erect or spreading, ovate, 12 mm. long, 8 to 10 mm. broad, obtuse; stamens 
4, in pairs, which are inserted on the upper portion of the corolla tube, ex- 
serted, the filaments 15 mm. long, united at base, the united portion 5 to 6 
mm. long and pilose, the free portions glabrous; anthers 7 mm. long, 2 mm. 
broad, the lobes 2 to 3 mm. long, obtuse, sparingly pilose along the sutures; 
ovary densely yellowish tomentose, 8-ovuled; style 3 to 4 em. long, pilosulous 
below, glabrous above, stigma 2-parted, one lobe rudimentary, the other 
subulate, about 4 mm. long, usually curved at tip; capsule oblong, 1.5 to 2 cm. 
long, 5 to 7 mm. broad, acute or obtuse at apex, densely tomentose with 
brownish, more or less spreading hairs; mature seed not seen but probably 
glabrous and lenticular. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,355,268, collected in the 
Culaga Valley, near Tapata, Dept. Norte de Santander, Colombia, altitude 
1500 to 2100 meters, March 4, 1927, by E. P. Killip and Albert C. Smith 
(no. 20140). Also deposited in the Gray Herbarium and herbarium of the 
New York Botanical Garden. 

Additional specimens examined: 

VENEZUELA: Vicinity of Tovar, Mérida, along the Rio Macoties, alt. 900 
meters, Pittzer 12828 (N, Y). 


This species is very distinct and easily recognized by the cordate leaf blades 
which are densely brown-tomentose on the lower surface, the unequal calyx 
lobes with narrow, pointed tips, and the loosely-flowered corymbose inflores- 
cence. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—WNew Coccinellidae from the West Indies.1. EDWARD 
A. CHAPIN, Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of 
Agriculture. (Communicated by Harotp Morrison.) 


The material described below has been received from several sources 
but by far the most important part has come for study and description 
from Mr. 8. C. BrunzrR, of the Estacion Experimental Agronémica 
de Cuba, at Santiago de las Vegas. In studying Mr. Bruner’s Scymnil- 
lodes it was found necessary to work over all specimens of that genus 
from the West Indies. Unfortunately, there is at hand no material 


1 Received September 17, 1930. 








DEC. 4, 1930 CHAPIN: WEST INDIAN COCCINELLIDAE | 489 


from Jamaica, from which island there have been described three 
species. This has prevented a monographic treatment of the genus. 


Geodimmockius, new genus? - 


Head prognathous; front slightly convex; epistoma not covering and not 
conspicuously raised above labrum; labrum transverse; antenna long, reaching 
to base of pronotum, inserted near eye at side of front, base free, ten-seg- 
mented, first segment the largest, somewhat bent, second as broad as first and 
little more than half as long, third about half as broad and slightly longer 
than second, fourth similar to third but slightly shorter, fifth, sixth and 
seventh of equal length, each slightly shorter than fourth, sixth and seventh 
noticeably wider than fifth, eighth to tenth forming a fusiform club, ninth 
and tenth of equal length; mandible with apex undivided, subapical tooth 
large and prominent, ventral submedian tooth obsolete, dorsal submedian 
tooth reduced to a small knob, median notch on inner edge large, deep, quad- 
rate; inner margin of mandible above notch cut away; maxilla with three- 
segmented palpus, apical segment very large, hatchet-shaped, second segment 
not prolonged at inner apical angle, galea and lacinia each with a cluster of 
long setae at tips; labium poorly chitinized, quadrate, with a few long setaeon 
external surface, internal surface closely studded with short spines, apical 
segment of palpus conical, slightly attenuate near tip which is squarely trun- 
cate, mentum trapezoidal, broadest in front, bearing eight long setae, sub- 
mentum very short and transverse. Pronotum moderately convex, trans- 
verse, lateral margins broadly explanate, not excavate below for reception of 
antennae, prosternum moderate, not concealing trophi, tumid, median paired 
carinae absent. Mesosternum with the median, anterior, crescent-shaped 
portion deeply sunk and bounded behind by a prominent arcuate carina, 
intercoxal portion trapezoidal, mesepisternum feebly chitinized and not well 
defined as to limits, mesepimeron roughly triangular, its inner point reaching 
and partially bounding coxal cavity. Metasternum broad, anterior lateral 
portions separated from posterior portion by a prominent transverse carina 
which is broken at median line, metepisternum not chitinized, metepimeron 
long and narrow, not excavate for reception of part of leg II. Elytron with 
epipleura horizontal, lateral margin strongly explanate, epipleura not excavate 
for reception of legs. Wing venation reduced, only costal, cubitus and fourth 
median veins visible. Legs essentially similar, femora not notably expanded, 
tibiae slender, parallel-sided, without grooves for reception of tarsi, without 
apical spurs but with the usual row of apical setae, tarsi four-segmented, third 
segment small and inconspicuous, claw with prominent basal tooth. Abdo- 
men with sternites III—VIII visible, metacoxal ares short and incomplete. 


Genotype.—Geodimmockius explanatus, new species 

This genus is closely allied in structure, though not in appearance, to the 
following West Indian genera: Psorolyma Sicard, Bura Mulsant, Botynella 
Weise, all of which the writer has been able to dissect and study. This well 
defined group shares the following characters: four-segmented tarsi, tarsal 
claws toothed at base, tibial spurs absent, mandible with subapical tooth 


*'To George Dimmock (1852-1930) for his extensive investigations in entomology and 
especially for his Algunas Coccinellidae de Cuba, Primer Informe Annual dela Estacion 
Central Agronémica de Cuba, pp. 287-392, June 1, 1906. 


e 


490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 20 


large and remote from apex and with median quadrate notch, antennae ten- 
segmented with three-segmented fusiform club, metacoxal ares incomplete. 

The following key, based on external characters only, will serve to separate 
the species of these genera which are known to me. 


1. Body strongly convex, outline from above nearly cirecular.............. 2 
Body not strongly convex, outline from above elongate............... 3 
2. Length 2.8 mm., bronze with metallic luster, epipleurae descending extern- 
ally, lateral margin of pronotum not explanate..Bura cuprea Muls. 
Length 1.7 mm., head, thorax and humeri black, elytra light castaneous, 
epipleurae horizontal, lateral margins of pronotum explanate 
Geodimmockius explanatus, new species. 
3. Length 2.0-2.5 mm., metallic blue above, epistoma of male produced in 
two multiangulate lateral processes. . .Psorolyma maxillosa Sic. 
Length 1.8-2.0 mm., testaceous spotted with black, epistoma not a 

in either sex. (Botynella) ve uscekie Wad MURS Ne ee rrr 
4. Elytra with a median spot common to both... ..Botynella 5-punctata Ws 
Hlyicra without suvuralispotu.. oc... ae Botynella 4-punctata Ws. 


Geodimmockius explanatus, new species 


Nearly circular, strongly convex, lateral margins of pronotum and elytra 
with broad, transparent, testaceous, explanate margins; head, last three seg- 
ments of antenna, pronotum, humeri and under surface of body black, elytra 
(except humeri) castaneous, basal segments of antenna, trophi and legs testa- 
ceous. Head finely sparsely punctured, eyes convex and prominent, labrum 
nearly quadrate; pronotum convex, more coarsely and much more densely 
punctured than head, twice as broad as long (by measurement), elytra with 
punctation similar to that of pronotum, greatest width at basal third where 
their combined width is one and one-half times that of pronotum; under parts 
finely alutaceous, very finely and sparsely punctured; legs moderately long, 
not received in cavities beneath body. Length: 1.7 mm., width: 1.5 mm., 
altitude: 0.85 mm. 


Type and paratypes.—Cat. No. 48129, U.S. N. M. 


Type a male, paratypes two females, all from 8. Nicolas, Oriente Prov., 
Cuba, July 20-27, 1927, 8. C. Bruner, collector, taken on Coffea arabica, E. E. 
A. de Cuba, No. 9338. One paratype, female, same data, in collection of 8. C. 
Bruner. One paratype, female, same data, in collection of the British 
Museum. 


Scymnillodes bruneri, new species 


Oval, convex, shining, brassy with rose-red reflections, under parts. black. 
Head with reflexed epistoma, front sparsely and moderately coarsely punc- 
tured, sparsely hairy. Antennae brownish, palpi and mandibles black. Pro- 
notum about twice as broad as long (length-width ratio = 20:39), marginal 
bead very fine, sides rather broadly and strongly reflexed. Punctation ex- 
tremely fine, hardly visible under magnification of 64. Elytra punctured 
like pronotum, lateral margin beaded and slightly reflexed, basal and sutural 
margins not beaded. Epipleurae with very slight excavations for legs, broad 
before middle, disappearing shortly behind middle. Prosternum and meso- 
sternum with a few very coarse punctures, metasternum sparsely and rather 





DEC. 4, 1930 CHAPIN: WEST INDIAN COCCINELLIDAE 491 


finely punctured. First visible abdominal sternite very sparsely punctured 
outside of the strongly raised metacoxal area, areas enclosed by arcs strongly 
alutaceous and more finely and densely punctured. Second to fourth sternites 
alutaceous laterally, shining medianly, each with one complete transverse row 
of rather coarse punctures and with other punctures near lateral margins. 
Legs and tarsi black. Length: 1.5mm., width: 1 mm., altitude: 0.7 mm. 


Type.—Cat. No. 43130, U. 8. N. M., from Santiago de las Vegas, Cuba, 
April 1, 1930, 8. C. Bruner, collector. Paratype, same place, April 8, 1930, 
S. C. Bruner, collector, in collection of S. C. Bruner. 


Easily separated from the other species of the genus by the black legs and 
almost invisible punctation of the pronotum and elytra. 


Scymnillodes iris, new species 


Oval, convex, shining, head bluish green, pronotum brassy-green, elytra 
rosy purple margined with brassy green, all parts with strong metallic reflec- 
tions, under parts black. Head with reflexed epistoma, front moderately 
densely set with deep and distinct punctures, sparsely but rather conspic- 
uously clothed with white hairs. Antennae not noticeably paler than palpi 
or mandibles. Pronotum twice as wide as long, marginal bead strong, side 
margins narrowly but sharply reflexed. Punctation of pronotum finer and 
slightly denser than that of head, pubescence not evident. Elytra with 
punctures of two sizes; however, the difference in the sizes is not so well 
marked as in S. splendidus. The density of punctation is about the same on 
pronotum and elytra. Marginal bead fine, noticeable both on lateral and 
sutural margins, basal margin not beaded. Epipleurae without defined exca- 
vations for reception of legs, broad anteriorly, rapidly disappearing behind. 
Prosternum very coarsely punctured, meso- and metasternum less coarsely 
and rather sparsely punctured. First abdominal sternite sparsely but coarsely 
punctured, other sternites as in S. splendidus. Legs and tarsi black. 
Length: 1.5 mm., width: 1.1 mm., altitude: 0.7 mm. 


Type.—Cat. No. 48131, U. 8. N. M. from Havana, Cuba, W. M. Mann, 
collector. 


Scymnillodes splendidus, new species 


Broadly oval, strongly convex, shining, greenish-blue to purplish blue, lus- 
ter strongly metallic, under parts black. Head strongly and moderately 
densely punctured, very inconspicuously hairy, epistoma strongly margined. 
Antennae brownish, palpi and mandibles black. Pronotum more than twice 
as broad as long (length-width ratio = 14:30), marginal bead complete, 
punctures of uniform size, rather coarse and not densely placed. Scutellum 
small, triangular, impunctate. Elytra with mixed punctation of large and 
small punctures, the large punctures and also the punctures of the pronotum 
umbilicate. Lateral marginal bead very strong, basal and sutural margins 
not beaded. EHpipleurae broad basally, excavate for reception of middle and 
hind legs but not sharply so, narrowing rapidly behind middle and disappear- 
ing in the latitude of the second visible abdominal segment. Prosternum and 
mesosternum very coarsely and closely punctured, metasternum less coarsely 
and quite sparsely punctured, especially in the median area. First visible 
abdominal sternite very sparsely punctured outside of the strongly raised 
metacoxal ares, areas enclosed by arcs strongly alutaceous and more finely 


492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 20 


and densely punctured. Second to fourth sternites alutaceous laterally, 
shining medianly, each with one complete transverse row of rather coarse 
punctures and with other punctures near lateral margins. Fifth sternite 
broadly rounded behind, slightly tumid in female, flat in male, evenly and 
rather coarsely punctured. Legs black, tarsi slightly paler. Length: 1.6-1.8 
mm., width: 1.3-1.4 mm., altitude: 0.90-0.96 mm. 


Types and paratypes.—Cat. No. 43132, U.S. N. M. 


Types and two paratypes from Baragua, 8.3.27, on citrus, L. C. Seara- 
muzza, collector, T. P. R. F. No. 3237; eight paratypes from Guantanamo, 
1918, W. M. Mann; one paratype from Cayamas, 8.6., E. A. Schwarz; one 
paratype from Central Jaronu, Aug. 10, C. F. Stahl, T. P. R. F. No. 2246; six 
paratypes from Paso Estancia, May 2, 1916, preying on Lepidosaphes sp.; 
six paratypes from Santiago de las Vegas, April 3, 1930, S. C. Bruner, E. E. A. 
de Cuba No. 9325; two paratypes from same place, Feb. 18, 1930, P. A. Berry, 
on Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby: three paratypes from same place, July 14, 
1930, S. C. Bruner; one paratype from near Santiago de Cuba, Oct. 4, 1928, 
Silvestri and Bruner; six paratypes from Camaguey, July 19, 1923, J. Acufia; 
four paratypes from Isle of Pines, on grapefruit, intercepted at Cincinnati, 
Ohio, U.S. A. by R.S. McKay. Paratypes in the collection of S. C. Bruner: 
one from Santiago de las Vegas, Feb. 18, 1930, P. A. Berry; one from same 
place, April 8, 1930, S. C. Bruner; one from Paso Estancia, May 2, 1916; one 
from Guantanamo, 1918, W. M. Mann; one from Camaguey, July 19, 1923, 
J. Acufia. Paratypes in collection of the British Museum: one from Santiago 
de las Vegas, Feb. 18, 1930, P. A. Berry; one from Paso Estancia, May 2, 
1916. 

The Santiago de las Vegas, Santiago de Cuba, and Isle of Pines specimens 
differ from the others in that the elytra are sharply bicolored, the lateral 
margins being deep blue while the discal areas are greenish. In a few the 
suture is also blue. I have been unable to find the slightest structural differ- 


ence between specimens of these forms. 


Scymnillodes caseyi, new name 


1924. Delphastus violaceus Casey, Memoirs Coleoptera, 11: 170, nec 
Scymnillodes cyanescens? var. violaceus Sicard, 1922. 


This species was based on one of a series of specimens taken at Cayamas, 
Cuba, by the late E. A. Schwarz. Judging from the eight specimens in the 
Museum collection, Casey’s type was not fully colored at the time of its cap- 
ture and for this reason only the posterior femora are dark. In what appear 
to be fully colored specimens all femora are nearly black, the pale yellowish 
tibiae in striking contrast with them. In addition to the Schwarz specimens 
from Cayamas there are in the collection one specimen from Cayamas col- 
lected by George Dimmock, one from Simpatia, Cuba, by W. M. Mann, two 
from Cabada, Cuba, by W. M. Mann, and two from Maricao, Porto Rico, 
July 2, 1917, by Harold Morrison (his number A-289). 

The Dimmock specimen noted above was recorded in his ‘‘Algunas Coc- 
cinellidae de Cuba” as Bura sp. 





pec. 4, 1930 CHAPIN: WEST INDIAN COCCINELLIDAE 493 


Scymnillodes gilvifrons, new species 


Oval, convex, shining, head metallic greenish, pronotum and elytra metallic 
violaceous, front of head and anterior angles of pronotum densely set with 
golden pubescence, under parts black, appendages yellowish to reddish testa- 
ceous. Head with epistoma hardly reflexed, punctation moderately dense 
and coarse but somewhat obscured by the pubescence. Mandibles castaneous, 
darker than labrum, antennae or palpi. Pronotum twice as wide as long, 
marginal bead strong at sides and across base, complete but fine across front 
margin, side margins narrowly but sharply reflexed. Punctation less dense 
but equally coarse to that of head, pubescence restricted to anterior angles. 
Elytra coarsely, sparsely and irregularly punctured, fine punctures absent. 
Marginal bead fine, present only on lateral margins. Epipleurae without 
defined excavations for legs, rather narrow from base to end of first abdominal 
sternite, rapidly disappearing behind. Prosternum with a few very coarse 
punctures covering most of the surface, meso- and metasternum more sparsely 
punctured, the latter punctured only at sides and along median line. Abdom- 
inal sternites strongly alutaceous at sides, sparsely and rather finely punc- 
tured. Legs and tarsi reddish testaceous. Length: 1.5 mm., width: 1.1 
mm., altitude: 0.8 mm. 


Type and three paratypes.—Cat. No. 43133, U. 8. N. M., from Maricao, 
Porto Rico, July 2, 1917, H. Morrison, collector, original number A-289. 


Easily recognized by the brilliant yellow pubescence on head and pronotum. 


Scymnillodes subtropicus Casey 


1924. Delphastus subtropicus Casey, Memoirs Coleoptera, 11: 170. 

Five specimens of this species from Key West, Florida, and one from 
Biscayne, Florida, are in the Museum collection. ‘The Biscayne specimen 
is rather more violaceous in color than the Key West series but in structure 
and punctation there appear to be no differences. A true Scymnillodes and 
the only species of this genus to be reported from the mainland of the Americas. 


Scymnillodes atrox, new species 


Oval, convex, shining, black, head with a greenish metallic luster, pronotum 
with bluish metallic luster, appendages reddish testaceous. Head with epi- 
stoma slightly reflexed, front rather sparsely and finely punctured, sparsely 
pubescent with pale whitish hairs. Pronotum very slightly more than twice 
as broad as long (length-width ratio = 19:40), marginal bead fine, side 
margins very narrowly reflexed. Punctation of pronotum same as that of 
head, pubescence not evident. Elytra rather less densely punctured than 
pronotum, punctures of a uniform size which is slightly larger than those of 
pronotum. Marginal bead fine, noticeable both on lateral and sutural mar- 
gins. Epipleurae not foveolate, moderate in width, rapidly disappearing 
behind level of first abdominal sternite. Prosternum coarsely but obsoletely 
punctured, mesosternum rather densely set with large ill-defined punctures, 
metasternum very sparsely and rather finely punctured. Abdominal sternites 
alutaceous laterally, sparsely and finely punctured, the second to fourth with 
the usual single transverse row of punctures. Legs and tarsi reddish testa- 
ceous. Length: 1.4 mm., width: 1.0 mm., altitude: 0.7 mm. 


Type.—Cat. No. 43134, U. S. N. M., from Camp Herrin, La Prise, Haiti, 
July 26, 1925, W. A. Hoffman, collector. 


494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 20 


The various species of Scymnillodes known to me may be separated one 
from another by the following table. It is impossible to place the Sicard 
species with any degree of certainty as the original descriptions are rather 
incomplete as regards the structural characters. Color and size alone are not 
sufficient to define species in this genus. 


1. Legs: blacks ese: cutee. dcpeeitee ie ae ae 2 
Legs, at least: in part, pale. ».: <!.cnm2».oan-2ee0 Bees ee Pe 4 
2. Hilyire impuneiate.. ice: bee eel ee S. bruneri, new species 
Hlytra conspicuously punctured... .02..¢ 5.240 See ee 3 


3. Elytral punctures nearly uniform in size; length 1.5 mm. 
S. iris, new species 
Elytral punctures of two conspicuously different sizes; length, 1.6-1.8 
TIME. 25 hae 2 ON cp Se RO eee IE S. splendidus, new species 
4. Apices of femora, tibiae and tarsi paler (usually very distinctly so) than 
remainder of femora; second abdominal sternite with two irregular 


transverse rows of punctures.................. S. caseyi, new name 

Legs entirely uniformly pale; second sternite with a single regular trans- 
verse row of punetures......... 0... +. +0 «. ieee 2 5 

5. Anterior angles of pronotum and front of head thickly set with golden 
DUIDESCENGCE oe ene to ee cee ace oe ea S. gilvifrons, new species 
Anterior angles very sparsely pubescent.....:........:....0-)ne eee 6 

6. Above bluish-black, beneath pale, intercoxal process of first abdominal very 
sparsely and irregularly punctured............ S. subtropicus Casey 

Above deep black, beneath deep brownish black, intercoxal process rather 
sparsely but quite regularly punctured......... S. atrox, new species 


Diomus bruneri, new species 


Form elongate, sides parallel; varying in coloration from piceous-black with 
head, trophi and antennae, anterior and side margins of pronotum, and two 
large spots on each elytron and legs pale to entirely pale except for the first two 
abdominal sternites which are castaneous. Head sparsely and finely but dis- 
tinctly punctured, sparsely pubescent. Pronotum much broader than long 
(length-width ratio = 28:48), lateral margins gently and evenly curved, 
anterior angles directed downward, anterior margin rather strongly convex so 
that the head is almost entirely concealed from above by the pronotum, lateral 
and basal margins finely beaded, surface sparsely and very finely punctured, 
sparsely set with decumbent pubescence. Elytra more strongly punctured 
than pronotum, pubescence similar to that of pronotum, lateral marginal 
bead very fine, epipleura narrow at base and disappearing at a point anterior to 
insertion of posterior coxae, piceous black bimaculate with stramineous in 
fully colored specimens. The anterior spot is large and roughly quadrate, 
occupying all of the anterior three-fifths of the elytron except the narrow 
basal, lateral and sutural margins. The posterior spot is irregular in shape 
and is usually connected with the anterior spot by a small isthmus of pale color 
at the sutural third of the width of the elytron. In its anterior half the spot 
fails to reach either suture or lateral margins, in its posterior half it suddenly 
widens to include all of the tip of the elytron. In pale specimens the dark 
color is completely absent. The prosternum between coxae is flat, apparently 
devoid of punctures, and is bordered by the usual carinae. The remaining 
under parts are finely and rather sparsely punctured and sparsely pubescent. 


—— 


DEC. 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 495 


The abdomen becomes somewhat paler toward the apex. The fifth visible 
sternite is broadly emarginate in the male, normal in the female. Length: 
1.7-2.0 mm., width: 0.96-1.1 mm., altitude: 0.72—0.80 mm. 


Type and paratypes.—Cat, No. 43168 U.S. N. M. 


Type and thirteen paratypes from Cayamas, various dates from December 
to June, E. A. Schwarz; two paratypes from Est. Cent. Agr. de Cuba, June 2, 
1916; one paratype from Havana, C. F. Baker; four paratypes from Baraqua, 
July to October, L. C. Scaramuzza, T. P. R. F. No. 3222; one paratype from 
Santiago de las Vegas, July 14, 1930, 8. C. Bruner; one paratype from Hoyo 
Colorado, Havana, D. W. Jones and 8. C. Bruner, E. E. A. de Cuba, No. 
9347; one paratype from Sierra Rangel, August 28, 1929, J. Acufia and §. C. 
Bruner; one paratype from Nagua, Oriente Prov., July 7, 1922, S. C. Bruner 
and C. H. Ballou. 

In the collection of S. C. Bruner—two paratypes from Cayamas, E. A. 
Schwarz, and one paratype from Hoyo Colorado, Havana, E. E. A. de Cuba, 
No. 9347. In the collection of the British Museum—two paratypes from 
Cayamas, E. A. Schwarz. 


Superficially resembles Diomus quadritaeniatus Lec. from Florida but is 
larger, much more finely punctured and with the pronotum less broad pro- 
portionately. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


419TH MEETING 


The 419th regular meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington was 
held at 8 p.m., Thursday, April 3, 1930, in the U. S. National Museum. F. 
C. BisHopr presided. Remarks were made by Doctor Morrison, the 
chairman of the program committee, Prof. E. N. Cory and Doctor, Howarp 
regarding a proposed meeting of our Society on the grounds of the University 
of Maryland at College Park, Maryland, the first Thursday afternoon and 
evening June 5 next, at which it was proposed to have opportunity for insect 
collecting, and an informal basket supper, followed by an open air meeting. 
On vote of the Society, this program was accepted with pleasure and thanks 
were extended to Professor Cory and his colleagues for the invitation. 

Program: J. M. AupRIcH gave some informal reminiscences of early years 
in Dipterology, with special emphasis on his own personal acquaintance with 
the personnel of its growth and development in this country. He apologized 
for dealing with the subject in such a personal way as he had no desire to 
appear egotistical or to appear to put himself unduly forward in the matter, 
but he considered that such a presentation from the standpoint of an indi- 
vidual could be made a much more vivid and colorful narrative. Doctor 
Aldrich stated that he was born at Rochester, Olmsted Co., in Minnesota in 
1866, where he spent his childhood. Parenthetically he added that at that 
time Rochester was an obscure village but is known now all over the world 
because of the famous medical and surgical institution there. In 1881, at 
the age of 15, his people moved to eastern South Dakota, near the Minnesota 


496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 20 


state border. He had a very brief high school career in 1884 and 1885 and 
later attended the State Agricultural College at Brookings, South Dakota, 
where he worked his own way through school. It was a new school in a new 
country, and began ona very small scale. However most of the student body 
were working their way and eager to learn, while the faculty was composed of 
friendly and helpful people; the speaker received in three years of this kind 
of atmosphere an intellectual impetus which is not always imparted in the 
largest universities. He did not however receive any important body of facts 
to carry away. His progress through the institution was accelerated by the 
desire of the President to have a graduating class in 1888, as a result of which 
he received his degree in three years. Entomology first came within his ken 
in the last term of college, when a course was given by Prof. I. H. Oreutt, a 
medical doctor who had been put on the faculty and given a large field in 
biology. The worthy doctor had never studied entomology himself, but he 
was wise enough to turn the students loose with the insects, and the speaker 
made a considerable collection and enjoyed the course immensely, but without 
the least thought that he might continue the subject, still less find his life 
work in it. 

After graduating, still at sea in regard to his next move, he, like a number of 
the other students, decided to canvass for a book to get a little ready money. 
Three days of this was enough to convince the speaker that he was not made 
for a book agent, and he went back to his father’s farm to assist in the harvest. 
A few days later, while shocking up wheat, the idea crossed his mind that 
Professor Orcutt, who had become entomologist of the newly-established 
Agricultural Experiment Station in addition to his teaching duties, really 
needed an assistant, and that an opening here might lead to an attractive field 
of activity. So he wrote to Doctor Orcutt, who consulted the President and 
wrote back that young Aldrich should study entomology through the winter, 
and in the spring they would see what could be done. With this much — 
encouragement the young man taught a term of school to get a little money, 
and in late fall made his way to the University of Minnesota to take up ento- 
mology again. This university then had about 500 students, ranking well in 
size among the western institutions. President Cyrus Northrup, after the 
manner of the time, interviewed all the new students personally; he said they 
had no courses in entomology, but out at the Experiment Station at St. 
Anthony Park they had a very able entomologist, Otto Lugger, who would 
perhaps give a student private instruction during the winter. So Aldrich 
went out to St. Anthony Park armed with a letter from the President, and 
was readily accepted as a student by Lugger. Arrangements were made to 
eat at the new School of Agriculture nearby, and sleeping accommodations 
were found in a cold room used by laborers in summer. Lugger originally 
was a German coleopterist and had a fine collection well mounted; he had 
been employed by Riley in Missouri, and after some years had been in the 
Division of Entomology staff in Washington for a short time before coming 
to Minnesota a year or two before 1888. The winter’s work leaned rather 
heavily on Leconte and Horn’s ‘‘Classification of the Coleoptera of North 
America,”’ but the student could not fail to absorb some of the enthusiasm of 
the teacher, who was a born naturalist. In the spring, after considerable 
delay, the young aspirant was given a three months’ engagement at the Agri- 
cultural College at Brookings, at $40 a month. In the fall he was put on 
the staff with an annual appointment at $500, with the understanding that he 
would devote his winters to study. 


DEC. 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 497 


Where to go to study entomology in the fall of 1889 was one of the first 
questions that arose, and was decided in favor of the Michigan Agricultural 
College; there was very little choice at that time, especially as the young 
student had not heard of Cornell University except in very vague terms. In 
November he started for Lansing, Mich., and spent the winter with a group of 
ten young men who, under Prof. A. J. Cook, were doing what was then be- 
lieved to be advanced work in entomology. Among the group were A.B. 
Cordley and F. J. Niswander, assistants to Professor Cook; Chas. B. Cook, 
nephew of the professor; Victor Lowe, later at the Geneva Experiment 
Station; H. E. Weed, Gager C. Davis, and C. F. Baker, who was still an under- 
graduate. Professor Cook was described by the speaker as an excellent 
teacher and a keen and practical man of affairs, with tremendous energy. He 
advised young Aldrich to select a single order as a specialty, and to proceed 
at once to get together a library and collection; he also suggested the Diptera 
as a large order in which there were but two workers (Williston and Coquillett) 
at the time in the country. The advice was accepted, and the library and 
collection duly begun, in the spring of 1890. Aldrich became a subscriber 
of Entomological News before the second number of Volume 1 was issued. 
Williston sent him his separates, as did Coquillet and Osten Sacken, and he 
began buying at an alarming rate out of his small salary. 

Returning to South Dakota for the year’s work, he collected as many 
Diptera as possible, and arranged in the fall with Professor Hagen to spend 
the following winter at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard in a 
study of the Loew-Osten Sacken collection of Diptera, then the only one of 
any importance in the United States. In November he started east with this 
object in view, first stopping at Ames, Iowa, to become acquainted with Os- 
born and Gillette. He accompanied both of the entomologists to Cham- 
paign, Illinois, to attend a meeting of the recently organized Association of 
Economic Entomologists. Professor Osborn shared his sleeping-car berth 
en route with the impecunious student, a characteristic act of kindness never 
forgotten. At Champaign he met Riley, Howard, John B. Smith and others, 
and found that Professor Cook had already secured his election to the Asso- 
ciation. Arriving at Harvard University, he was informed by the registrar, 
Frank Bolles, that Professor Hagen had suffered a stroke of paralysis and 
his department had been closed, making it impossible for anyone to study the 
collections. This was a severe blow, as it was hard to arrange any other plan 
for the winter without far exceeding the available funds of the student. 
In explaining his situation to the sympathetic registrar, he happened to 
allude to his graduation from the South Dakota Agricultural College; this 
had a remarkable effect, for Harvard University at that time was very ambi- 
tious to develop a strong graduate department, and any sort of a degree 
meant a great dealin astudent. So Mr. Bolles began to plan to secure from 
Alexander Agassiz some concession which would permit Aldrich to remain. 
Following the directions of Bolles, he went to Agassiz’s door expecting to 
see the eminent Director, but was kept waiting outside while a secretary 
went in and explained his broken plans. After a time she came back and 
opened the door sufficiently to say that Mr. Agassiz could do nothing about 
the matter. Mr. Bolles later interviewed Agassiz himself with no results, and 
a letter of explanation from Aldrich to Agassiz, suggested by Bolles, brought 
only a printed postal card denying the request. 

Forced to abandon his winter’s plans, he started for Washington to see the 
collections there, but on the way stopped at Brown University to see Professor 


498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 20 


Packard, who was most friendly and hospitable, and took the young ento- 
mologist home to dinner, after which they spent the evening in the library, 
and Packard showed materials for future publications which he was preparing. 
It was the first glimpse into the field of real science, and made a profound 
impression on the westerner. 

Arriving in Washington early one morning in late November, Aldrich 
waited for the opening of business and pawned his watch for $5, after which 
he ate breakfast and shortly made his way to the Division of Entomology. 
Doctor Howard took him in charge, suggested a place to stay and arranged 
about his work in the National Museum, where the collection of insects was 
under the direction of Martin Linell. The main part of the collection of 
Diptera was in the Syrphidae, where Williston’s Syrphidae were deposited. 
With these and such other material as has been accumulated, Aldrich spent 
three profitable weeks. A meeting of the Entomological Society occurred in 
this period, which he attended on the invitation of Doctor Howard. It was 
in a private house, and the small room was soon so full of tobacco smoke that 
at the conclusion the visitor was obliged to seek fresh air, without sharing in 
the social hour which was then an outstanding feature. His money exhausted, 
Aldrich returned home and spent the remainder of the winter classifying his 
flies with the help of the library he had accumulated. 

The following winter was spent at home, as his collections and library had 
then assumed enough importance to justify all the time he could spend upon 
them. 

In the summer of 1892 he had his first real collecting trip, a small appro- 
priation having been secured for a trip to the Black Hills lasting some three or 
four weeks. In the Hills he joined a party from the University of Nebraska, 
under the management of Professor Bruner. Among the members were 
Rydberg, White, A. F. Woods, and other students, as well as the Bruner 
family and several women and children. 

Conditions in the college had become disturbed, owing to factional strife. 
Professor Orcutt had become involved as an opponent of the President. In 
November several removals from the faculty took place, and among those 
to go where Orcutt and Aldrich. It did not take a young dipterist of those 
days long to decide that the proper course lay in joining Williston in the 
University of Kansas; so about New Year’s he arrived at Lawrence, where 
Williston received him with open arms and he spent the rest of the 
year adding a little other work to his main study of the Diptera. It was in 
the last of June, after the close of the college year, that he was appointed 
Professor of Biology in the University of Idaho, and he concluded his reminis- 
cences at this point. 

Summarizing his educational experiences, he noted that his four teachers, 
Orcutt, Lugger, Cook and Williston, formed a sort of ascending series, but 
each contributed an important element. He began his professorship in the 
new University of Idaho with pathetically inadequate preparation (never 
having seen an Amoeba, for instance). Fortunately the instruction for some 
years was elementary, and by diligent application he attained a fair degree of 
self-education ;—‘‘And after all,’ he concluded, “‘I do not know of any other 
kind of education.”’ (Awthor’s abstract). 

This paper was discussed by Doctor Howarp. 

W. V. Baupur: Preliminary remarks on the habits and taxonomy of the 
chalcid genus Decatoma Spin. This will be amplified and published later. 
Discussed by Doctor Howarp. 


pec. 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 499 


E. A. Cuapin: Remarks on exotic Scarabaeidae inporied into the United 
States. Doctor Chapin gave a short discussion of afew of the Scarabaeidae 
which have been imported into the United States at various times. The spe- 
cies mentioned were Onthophagus nuchicornis L., Aphodius rufipes L.., 
Geotrupes stercorosus Scriba, Hybosorus illigert Reiche, Autoserica castanea 
Arr., Serica similis Lewis, Plectris sp. near pexa Germ., Anomala dubia Scopoli, 
Anomala rufocuprea Mots., Anomala orientalis Waterh., Popillia japonica 
Newm., and Oxycetonia jucunda Fald. Of these, all but two have been 
previously reported. /Plectris sp. near pera Germ. was taken at or near 
Charleston, 8. C., July 1922. That year it appeared to be quite numerous. 
However, nothing has been seen of it since, according to Miss Laura Bragg of 
the Charleston Museum. Anomala rufocuprea Mots. is a Japanese species 
twice taken in this country. One specimen comes from Kent, Washington 
where it was collected by H. E. Burke, July 10, 1905. The other was taken 
in a greenhouse at the Demoto Nursery, Melrose, Calif., May 17, 1915 by E. 
O. Essig. In regard to the names of two of our imported pests, the speaker 
pointed out that no possible case for the retention of Aserzca Lewis in place of 
Autoserica Brenske can be made which will not conflict with the International 
Code of Nomenclature. The ease is fully covered in Opinion 14. The point 
at issue in the case of Anomala orientalis Waterh. is not one of nomenclature 
so much as one of zoology. The species was described in Phyllopertha where 
it obviously does not belong. Reitter’s genus Hxomala was proposed to care 
for this one species. It seems hardly necessary however, and its transfer to 
Anomala was made as early as 1887. 

This paper was discussed by Ronwir, Morrison, Bishop, and Howarp. 

Miss Coucorp exhibited a copy of a mimeographed contribution just 
issued entitled ‘“‘Check list of the publications on entomology issued by the 
United States Department of Agriculture through 1927, with subject index,” 
by Mabel Colcord, Ina L. Hawes, and Angelina J. Carabelli, U. 8. Dept. of 
Agriculture Library Bibliographical contribution No. 20, January, 1930. 


420TH MEETING 


The 420th regular meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington 
was held at 8 p.m. Monday, April 28, 1930, in the Assembly Hall of the Cos- 
mos Club. The President, Mr. J. E. Grar, presided. 

Brief preliminary remarks were made by the President, introducing the 
speaker of the evening. He stated that the Society was called together on 
short notice at other than its regular meeting time, in order to give the person- 
nel opportunity and pleasure of meeting and listening to an address by a 
distinguished visitor, Professor Carn von Friscu, Director of the Zoological 
Institute, University of Munich, Germany, who had been on a lecture tour 
throughout this country since March 11, and who would depart for New York 
the following day where he would lecture on Wednesday and Thursday 
at Columbia University and would sail for Europe on Friday. 

Professor von Friscu thereupon addressed the Society on the subject of 
The senses and language of the honeybee. In this he first reviewed briefly 
the results of some experimental work performed by various workers from Sir 
John Lubbock to himself on the ability of bees to distinguish differences of 
color, and showed some of the mechanical equipment and methods used in 
his own work along that line. The first experiments were with blue, and 
later with purple, orange, green, and other colors. Later efforts were made 
to detect ability of bees to distinguish variations in closely related shades, 
especially in blossoms of plants, and on cardboards with and without sugar 


500 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 20 


baits. Attention also was given to experiments on underlying reasons why 
certain species of bees appear always to feed on the same species of flowers, and 
possible relation thereto of senses of taste and smell, and the ability to dis- 
tinguish sweet, sour or bitter substances. Methods used to segregate by 
number, or otherwise to mark the individual bees for observation purposes, 
were shown. Moving pictures also were shown of various forms of dancing 
by bees and the possible significance was discussed. A considerable number of 
slides and motion picture reels were shown during the address. 

This communication was discussed by McINpoo and Buscx. 


J.S. Wave, Recording Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Dr. CarLeTon R. Batu, until recently principal agronomist in charge, 
Office of Cereal Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, and now engaged in agricultural writing, was elected 
national president of Gamma Sigma Delta, honor society of agriculture, at 
its recent annual meeting in St. Louis. He had been its vice-president for the 
past two years. 


Prof. LAWRENCE M. Gou tp of the University of Michigan, geologist of the 
Byrd Antarctic Expedition, delivered an illustrated lecture before the National 
Geographic Society November 14 on the subject Wzth Byrd to the bottom of 
the World. On the afternoon of November 15 he spoke informally about the 
geology of Antarctica to a group of geologists at the Geological Survey. 


Mr. MELBouRNE Warp, of the Australian Museum, is spending a few 
weeks examining crustacea at the National Museum. On November 15 he 
gave an illustrated lecture before the Biological Society on The natural history 
of the barrier reef of Australia. 








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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 20 DECEMBER 19, 1930 No. 21 


PALEONTOLOGY.—On the fossil Mammalia of the first interglacial 
stage of the Pleistocene of the United States! Ouiver P. Hay. 


The writer accepts the conclusion of most recent geologists that 
there have been in North America four, possibly five, distinct glacial, 
and three, possibly four, interglacial stages. He holds, with most 
geologists, that during each glacial stage there prevailed at and beyond 
the border of the ice an arctic climate, which compelled the animals 
and plants either to retreat or to perish. Evidently at the beginning 
of the Pleistocene there existed an abundant fauna and at its end a 
meager one. If we seek the prime cause of the disastrous effects on 
the living things it will be found in the successive glacial climates. 

I can not accept the view of the Iowa geologists that the fossil 
animals found in the western part of the State, except perhaps amusk 
ox, existed there during the height of a glacial stage; nor is there sufh- 
cient evidence for us to believe that elephants existed there before the 
Nebraskan stage. 

Unfortunately the fossil remains found in the Aftonian deposits in 
Iowa are too often fragmentary; but according to our present knowl- 
edge, the following mammals inhabited that region at that time. 


Megalonyx jeffersonil Camelops? sp. indet. 
Mylodon harlani Alces shimeki 

Equus complicatus Aftonius calvini 

EK. niobrarensis °Symbos ecavifrons 
E. scotti Bison sp. indet. 

E. laurentius Stegomastodon mirificus 
E. excelsus Mammut progenium 
Mylohyus? temerarius M. americanum 
Hlephas imperator Castor canadensis 

K. columbi Castoroides ohioensis 
EK. boreus EKuarctos americanus 





* Received Oct, 22, 1930. 


502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 21 


These fossils form the corner stone of our knowledge of the succes- 
sion of North American Pleistocene vertebrates.” 

West of Missouri River the Equus beds of Cope, the Sheridan beds 
of Scott, extend from the glaciated region of South Dakota to the 
Gulf. They appear to be a continuation of the Aftonian of Iowa and 
to contain some of the same species and many in addition. On the 
Plains these beds are widely overlain by deposits of loess, sometimes 
very deeply. 

In Nebraska, about Seneca, have been collected Equus niobrarensis, 
E. excelsus, Camelops?, Platygonus, and probably Elephas imperator 
and Stegomastodon mirificus.2 Some of these species have been re- 
ferred to the Pliocene, but the geologists inform us that, at the close 
of the Pliocene, glacial conditions were already approaching in Great 
Britain. Migration in higher latitudes must therefore have been 
somewhat difficult for large, and more so for small, mammals. 

Near Grayson (Peters), Nebraska, a half mile or more from Niobrara 
River and from 50 to 100 feet above it, have been collected many 
genera and species found in the Aftonian of Iowa. Eighty per cent 
are extinct. These include Hlephas imperator, three species of camels, 
two of horses and a saber-tooth tiger. Since these animals lived, the 
Niobrara has cut down its channel 50 to 100 feet deeper and moved a 
mile away. 

Afton, Oklahoma, offers us a case in which a first interglacial fauna 
occurs near the surface of the Equus beds. A spring there, at which 
mammals for thousands of years quenched their thirst, has never been 
smothered by a deposit of loess. Besides later fossils, it has furnished 
five species of horses, two species of camels and Hlephas vmperator. 
Seventy-three per cent are extinct.® 

At Frederick, Oklahoma, deep down in an old filled-up river bed on 
the top of a ridge 100 feet above the surrounding region, the stream now 
flowing ten miles away, have been collected 25 species of mammals, 
among them Elephas imperator?, E. haroldcooki, Stegomastodon, 
Glyptodon, five or six species of horses, and at least two kinds of camels. 
All species are exinct.° 


20.P.Hay. Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 322A: 286-301. 

$QO7P. Hay.!? Op; ci. 302. 

40. P. Hay. Op. cit. 100, 304. 

°O. P. Hay. Op. cit. 94, 254. 

6O.P. HayandH,J.Coox. Proc. Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist. 9, No. 2. 





DEC. 19, 1930 HAY: PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS 903 


At Rock Creek, in Tule Canyon, Briscoe County, Texas, has been 
collected a large fauna in still other conditions. In late Pliocene or 
early Pleistocene times, during an uplift, a stream cut a gorge about 
100 feet deep into Miocene deposits. Later there was a depression 
during which were laid down four distinct Pleistocene beds amounting 
to about 90 feet. Then occurred another change. A quickened 
stream cut down through all the Pleistocene, through the Miocene and 
into the Triassic. In the Pleistocene of this canyon have been collected 
Glyptodon, two elephants (one of them Hlephas imperator), from four 
to six horses, and four kinds of camels, twenty or more species, all of 
which are extinct.’ 

Along Brazos River, at Waco, Texas, are three terraces, the highest 
standing 100 feet above the river. On this terrace have been found 
remains of Hlephas «mperator and of camels.® 

At Pittbridge, Brazos County, 13 species of mammals have been 
collected, including Chlamytherirum, Megatherium, a horse, a camel, 
three species of mastodons, and Hlephas wmperator. All belong to 
extinct species. °® 

In Austin County, on Brazos River, 80 miles from the Gulf, near 
San Felipe, have been collected nine species of extinct mammals, 
among them Llephas imperator, a horse, a camel, two species of 
mastodons, and a long-horned bison.!° 

Along the shores of Galveston Bay skeletons of elephants are fre- 
quently found. One at least of these was Elephas imperator. 

At Keeran Point, on the Gulf Coast, bones of a large camel have 
been collected. With these was associated an elephant, possibly £. 
umperator." 

A comparison of the lists of fossils cited above as collected in Iowa, 
Nebraska, Oklahoma and Texas must convince one that all belong to 
an early stage of the Pleistocene and all to the same stage. Some of 
the collections cited, and most of those to be cited, contain three groups 
of species: (a) Species which do not occur in more recent deposits; 
(b) Species becoming extinct in later stages; (c) Species living into 
historical times. 


_7™0.P. Hay. Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 322A: 85, 222, 232, fig. 2. 
80.P.Hay. Op. cit. 88, 127, 161, 227, 243. 
90. P. Hay. Op. cit. 244, 245. 
TCO Ebay Op. cit. 246. 
1Q.P. Hay. Op. cit. 21, 64, 163, 248. 


504. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 21 


On map 25 of the author’s work, Publication 322A, of the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington, are shown the localities in the middle region 
of the United States where extinct species of the genus Bison have 
been discovered. In Texas are 16 of these. On map 26 are indicated 
finds referred to Bison bison. Seven in Texas are thus identified, but 
the writer can not be sure that even one of these is at once Bison bison 
and older than the late Pleistocene. Had this animal lived in Texas 
with the species shown on map 25, it is hard to explain why no skull 
or even horn core has been discovered in association with early 
Pleistocene species. ‘These extinct species were apparently buried 
when Texas was at a higher elevation and since that time the streams 
have spent their energy in deepening and widening their valleys. 
Satisfactorily identified remains of Bison bison appear to occur in 
Texas only on lower river terraces. 

I come now to deal with the earliest known Pleistocene mammals 
of Florida. In this state are some six localities where such remains 
have been collected. Details regarding these and citations of papers 
discussing them may be found in the writer’s Publication 322 of the 
Carnegie Institution of Washington and in Dr. G. G. Smmpson’s 
article in the Twentieth Annual Report of the Florida Geological 
Survey, on pages 231 to 279. 

There is general agreement that the collections of the six localities 
mentioned below are of the same geological age; but there is disagree- 
ment as to what that age is. 


In “stratum No. 2”? (now denominated Melbourne beds) at Vero, | 


St. Lucie County, have been collected 29 species of mammals, of which 
21 are extinct, 67 per cent. Among these are 4 species of edentates, 
3 species of horses, a capybara, an undetermined camel, and the 
Florida saber-tooth tiger. Three miles away, in a corresponding 
formation, was found a jaw of Elephas imperator.” 

From Melbourne, Brevard County, a collection of forty species of 
mammals has been reported, at least 60 per cent of which are extinct. 
Among these are Chlamytherium, a species of glyptodon, a camel, 
and EHlephas imperator.# 

Seminole Field, Pinellas County, has contributed 46 mammalian 
species. At least 27 of these are no longer living, 59 per cent. Five 


20, Pe Hay. Op. crt. 163. 
13G.G.Srmpson. Florida Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. 20: 268. 





dbieg 
@y 


. 


| 


DEC. 19, 1930 HAY: PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS 505 


species of edentates, two horses, three camels, and a saber-tooth are 
among the number." 

Not far from Sarasota, Sarasota County, have been collected 23 
species of mammals, of which at least 15 species, 65 per cent, are ex- _ 
tinct. Among these are a Glyptodon, a camel, a horse, and a saber- 
tooth tiger. 

About seven miles east of Sarasota have been secured 14 species of 
mammals, 11 of which, 80 per cent, are extinct. These include a 
camel, Chlamythervum and a horse." 

Near Arcadia, DeSoto County, along Peace Creek, have been found 
12 species of land mammals, of which 11, 91 per cent, are extinct. 
These include Glyptodon, two horses and Elephas vmperator."" 

These Melbourne beds and their fossils are now to be compared with 
those of western Iowa and those found from South Dakota to the Gulf. 
Certainly the fossils of Florida resemble in a general way those collected 
in the western region. ‘There are in both states numerous edentates 
(such as ground sloths, and glyptodons), wolves, bears, great cats, 
elephants, mastodons, horses, tapirs, peccaries, camels, deer, bisons, 
gigantic beavers, and gigantic capybaras. Nearly every family of 
mammals found in Florida occurs also on the Plains. Of 51 genera of 
Melbourne mammals recorded by Simpson!® 18 are found also in 
Texas. Of 70 species of Melbourne mammals 14 are known in Texas; 
and quite certainly more collecting in the two states will increase the 
numbers of species possessed in common. Of the genera occurring in 
the Melbourne beds 23 are recorded from the deposits regarded as 
Aftonian of the region from western Iowa to the Gulf of Mexico. 

The collections made in Florida contain usually more species than 
those of the western region. This is simply because the Florida fossils 
were buried in ponds and slowly flowing streams, while those of western 
Iowa and of the Plains were deposited by swift waters which swept 
away the bones of the small creatures. At Vero, Florida, occur 29 
species, of which seven are small, 24 per cent of the whole. At Mel- 
bourne were found 44 species of which four were small, 9 per cent. 

At Lecanto 26 species were collected of which eight were small, 30 
percent. At Seminole Field 44 species were secured, 12 of which were 
small, 27 per cent. 


144G.G.Simpson. Op. cit. 264. 

15G.G.Srtmpson. Op. cit. 274. 

146G.G.Simpson. Op. cit. 275. 

“O.P. Hay. Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 322: 381. 
18G.G.Simpson. Florida Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. 20: 251. 


506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 21 


On the other hand, in the Cox pit, near Missouri Valley, Harrison 
County, Iowa, have been collected 19 species, all of them large. 
At Peters, Nebraska, have been taken 21 species, only two small, 
9 per cent. At Frederick, Oklahoma, have been collected at least 23 
species, none small. From Rock Creek, Texas, have been reported 
18 species, none small. At Pittbridge, Texas, have been secured 14 
species, none small. 

If in this region the microfauna were duly represented, the collec- 
tions'would be quite as large in species as those of Florida and probably 
the number of species common to both regions would be augmented. 

It is in order now to determine in what way Florida is-related in its 
Pleistocene mammalian paleontology to that of the Great Plains. 
In looking over the records it is found that 50 species have been dis- 
covered in the collections made in Texas and referred by the writer to 
the early Pleistocene and that, of these, 16 species are regarded as 
common to Florida, that is, 32 per cent, and few small species occur. 
In Nebraska there have been collected apparently 22 species of mam- 
mals, very few small forms, and, of these 22, only six are known from 
Florida, 27 per cent. In Iowa have been secured 25 species of which 
apparently eight, none small, are known from Florida, 32 per cent. 

Now are these differences in the composition of the various collec- 
tions such as we can or can not expect? Do they indicate different 
geological stages of existence? ‘Taking into consideration the distance 
of the Plains from Florida, but more especially the differences in lati- 
tude and of faunal zones, what do we find at the present day? So far 
as I can determine there exist now in Texas 111 species of mammals. 
Of these 23 live in Florida, 20 per cent. In Nebraska there are approx- 
imately 50 existing mammals, of these 11 seem to belong also in Florida, 
22 per cent. 

It will hardly be questioned that these existing mammals of Florida, 
Texas, and Nebraska belong to the same geological time; but what 
reason is there that quite similar differences should not be expected 
in the case of the animals of an early Pleistocene stage? 

The reader who is interested in this discussion is now invited to ex- 
amine the lists of fossils taken at various European localities from 
deposits which Mayet and Roman call the ‘‘Pliocéne récent”’ and the 
“‘Pléistocéne ancien.’’2° This ‘‘Recent Pliocene,’ however, corre- 


19Q0.P.Hay. Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 322A: 296. 
20 Mayetand Roman. Ann. Univ. Lyon (n.s.) fase. 42: 22-68. 





DEC. 19, 1930 HAY: PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS 507 


sponds to the first and second glacial and first and second interglacial 
stages of North American geology. Most of the lists cited belong to 
the first glacial stage, known to us as the Nebraskan, but the deposits 
lie well outside the glaciated region. The Red Crag, however, is 
placed by Haug at the top of his period Neogene.”! The pages of 
Mayet and Roman’s work on which each list begins is here cited. 

1. Sables de Chagny (p. 22). The list presents 18 species, of which 
all are extinct; no small species. Sixteen genera (including subgenera) ; 
five of them extinct, 31 per cent. 

2. Perrier (p. 29). Thirty-six species, all except one extinct; four or 
five small. ‘Twenty-seven genera, four extinct, 14 per cent. 

3. Du Puy (p. 35). Thirteen species, all extinct; none small. Nine 
genera, three extinct, 33 per cent. 

4. Val d’Arno (p. 50). Thirty-five species, all extinct. Four or 
five species small. Twenty-five genera, six extinct, 24 per cent. 

5. Red Crag (p. 58). Eighteen species of land mammals, all extinct, 
one small. Sixteen genera, three extinct, 19 per cent. 

6. Cromer Forest bed (p. 66). Thirty-eight species, 14 extinct, 37 
per cent. ‘Twenty-seven genera, four extinct, 15 per cent. Ten 
species small. 

This locality and its fossils are arranged by the French authors at the 
top of the Old Pleistocene (Yarmouth). ‘They employ the prevailing 
nomenclature. It is now believed, however, that most of the species 
need revision; also many of the genera. 

It will be observed that these lists, like those of our country, differ in 
number of species from place to place and often in the identity of 
species; but in all of them, for identification of geological position, are 
a few prominent forms, such as primitive elephants, mastodons, rhinoc- 
eroses, Hquus, etc.; as in America we must rely on Elephas imperator, 
EL. haroldcooki, Stegomastodon, Equus, and the Camelide. In both 
these countries these fossils, for the most part, bind the formations to 
the early Pleistocene; the Cromer fossils attach the Cromer beds appar- 
ently to the first or second interglacial stages. 

Therefore as regards the Melbourne beds of Florida, the writer 
is confident that, notwithstanding the prevalent theories of successive 
Pleistocene submergences and consequent terraces, of dissolution of 
fossils from these terraces by percolating waters, of terraces formed 
within 15,000 years; of the notion that Florida was a land where the 


*1Havua. Tratté de géologie. 1620. ° 


508 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 21 


mammals were protected from glacial storms until rude barbarians 
came and slew them with their arrows and clubs and stones—notwith- 
standing these theories, those Melbourne beds belong to the first inter- 
glacial stage. 

The writer will now consider briefly the Pleistocene paleontology 
of a portion of the Pacific Coast region. It is necessary to mention 
only two localities, Fossil Lake, Oregon, and La a near Los Angeles, 
California. 

In deposits of an ancient desiccated lake, now Fossil Lake, have been 
collected 22 species of mammals and 50 of birds. Of the mammals 
12 species, 52 per cent; of the birds 16, 32 per cent, are extinct. Of the 
mammals three species only are small. Ten of the genera are found in 
Florida and at least two species. Four species of camels, one horse, 
and Elephas wmperator have been collected.”2 

La Brea furnishes a vast number of finely preserved, but disarticu- 
lated, skeletons of mammals in deep pits of asphaltum mingled with 
sand. Forty-four species are recorded, a few not determined specifi- 
cally. Of these at least 23 are extinct, 57 per cent. Five of the species 
are known from Florida. ‘Thirty-six genera are present, of which 11 
are extinct, in North America at least. Twenty-two of the genera 
occur also in Florida. About ten species are small. Three species of 
large edentates, one horse, a bison, five dogs, four large cats (among 
them a saber-tooth tiger), a camel, and Hlephas imperator are present. 
Only five of the species are recorded in Florida.?* 

These localities furnish fossils which indicate first interglacial ani- 
mals. ‘The essential species are present. In Oregon and California 
not many are found which are known from the states of the Plains and 
from Florida; but this is exactly what is to be expected. Let us see 
how the existing mammals of the Pacific region agree in species with 
those of the eastern third of the United States. 

From Mr. G. 8. Minier’s Mammals of North America, 1924, I make 
out that in the states east of Mississippi River there are close to 116 
species of mammals. In the 11 States, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyo- 
ming, Montana, and those between these and the Pacific Ocean, there 
are approximately 356 species. Of these there appear to be about 27 
species common to the two regions, about 7 per cent of those of the 
western region, and about 23 per cent of those of the eastern. 


22Q.P.Hay. Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 322B: 243, 
28). Hay. Idem.,.«183. 





DEC. 19, 1930 DENSMORE: INDIAN MUSIC 509 


In Florida there exist about 40 species of mammals; in California 
approximately 190. I find only eight species common to the two states. 

If the fossils of Fossil Lake and of La Brea are not regarded as con- 
temporaneous with those of the Plains and of Florida, geologists of 
some szeons hence who may have in hand fossils of the present day 
mammals of the eastern third of our country and of the western third 
would, on the same grounds, be justified in referring them to quite 
different geological stages or epochs. 


ETHNOLOGY .—The music of the American Indians at public gather- 
ings (Abstract).! Francks DENsMoRE, Bureau of American 
Ethnology. 


Music was an important factor in public gatherings of the Indians 
and they derived much pleasure from it, yet there were no concerts and 
the European custom of ballad singing was unknown. The American 
Indian never sang for the approval of others, neither did he sing in 
order to be paid for his performance. His pleasure in music was not 
connected with technic but with the melodies, their words, and certain 
associations of the songs. In the old days every Indian song was an 
inspiration, not a creation of man according to rule and precept.? 

After describing the Indian custom of “receiving songs in dreams’’ 
the writer considered her subject under four divisions: poetry, drama, 
dancing and games. The accompanying instruments were various 
forms of drums and rattles producing rhythm but not melody. 

The poetry of the Indians is contained in the words of songs and 
rituals. ‘There is no attempt to interpret these words by the manner 
of rendering the songs. Many song-cycles of southwestern tribes 
relate the journeys of mythical personages, and the people dance dur- 
ing a portion of these songs. The beauties of nature form the subject 
of many songs, the words being few but highly poetic. 

Primitive drama is closely associated with music. There is rich 


1 Received Oct. 9, 1930. The paper of which this is an abstract was read by Miss 
Elizabeth Burchenal, September 1, 1930, at the International Congress of Popular Arts, 
held at Antwerp. It was the only paper from the United States on the program. The 
other papers were from England, Spain, Holland, Belgium, Germany, France, and Italy. 

2 With reference to my paper on the music of the American Indian (this JouRNAL 18: 
395-408, 1928), Prof. Constans MALTEzOS, a member of the Academy of Athens anda 
student of ancient oriental and Peruvian music, who had thought that there might be an 
intelligent system underlying the music of the American Indians, writes me as follows: 
‘“‘Je trouve que vous avez raison: vos Indiens ne pouvent avoir eu une idée de intervalle 
duton. Cette musique n’a pas passé par le mains de théoreticiens.”’ 


510 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 21 


pageantry, as well as music, in the ceremonies to bring rain. The Sun 
Dance of the Plains tribes had its ceremonial songs, and the warrior dram- 
atized his victory over the enemy. Among the Sioux, the man who 
had received a vision acted it out, that all might know he had the elk 
or the bear as his spiritual helper, and he sang the song given in his 
vision. ‘The history of Indian tribes is replete with drama in ritual 
and ceremony. 

Dancing differs in style among the various tribes, some maintaining a 
dignified manner while others have contests in acrobatic dancing with 
many contortions. ‘There are dances of individual expression, dances 
imitating birds and animals, and dances in which the people stand still, 
flexing the knees, but in a majority of Indian dances the people move in 
a circle around a large drum. 

Games of pure skill and calculation, like chess, are unknown among 
the American Indians, their games being contests of dexterity or games 
of chance. Success in games was formerly attributed to supernatural 
aid, and songs were sung to ensure that aid. 

In closing, the writer described various customs connected with 
Indian music and noted the absence of self-aggrandisment on the part 
of Indian musicians. It was the old belief that songs were given by 
friendly spirits, and their use was chiefly associated with securing help 
and benefit to human beings. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


421sT MEETING 


The 421st regular meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington was 
held at 8 p.m., Thursday, June 5, 1930, by special invitation at the University 
of Maryland, beginning with an informal picnic and basket dinner from 6 to 
8 p.m. on the campus and continuing with the formal session at 8 p.m. in the 
University Auditorium at College Park, Maryland. J. E. Grar, president, 
presided. H. L. Parker, European Parasite Laboratory, Hyéres, Var, 
France; NEweuu E. Goon, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C.; and 
JAMES ZETEK, Barro Colorado Island Biological Laboratory, Canal Zone, 
were elected to membership in the society. 

A brief informal address was given by H. J. Patrrerson, Director of Mary- 
land Agricultural Experiment Station, in which he greeted the society and 
extended welcome for all to the University. He then read a note from R. A. 
PEARSON, the President of the University, expressing regret at inability to be 
present and writing in highly appreciative terms of Doctor Howard and their 
personal associations. Doctor Patterson expressed hope that all the scientific 





: 


DEC. 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 511 


organizations of Washington would continue more and more to make regular 
use of the facilities of the University for various gatherings and assured a 
hearty welcome to all. He also referred to the practical value of entomologi- 
eal work and the annual savings effected through such research, and made 
very brief mention of the work of some of the early entomologists connected 
with the Maryland Station or the University, and the publications issued 
therefrom dealing with entomological topics. He stated that all were 
honored by the presence at the meeting of Doctor Howard, and an especial 
welcome was extended to him 

E. N. Cory also made a very brief address of welcome to the society and 
referred appreciatively to the work of the various entomologists connected 
with the Maryland institution, many of whom were later with the Federal 
Bureau. 

Program: L. O. Howarp, of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology, Some early 
entomologists. Apropos of the letter from Doctor Pearson just read, Doctor 
Howard spoke appreciatively of the association reaching back for thirty 
years or more with Doctor Pearson, and of the latter’s ability to “‘pull ideas 
down from the sky.’ It was due to one of these ideas that Doctor Howard 
first was made one of the trustees of Cornell University. In discussion of 
his subject, Doctor Howard placed especial emphasis on reminiscences of the 
careers of certain of the early entomologists who had been connected in one 
way or another at various periods of their lives with the work of the Maryland 
Station. The first of these to whom consideration was given was Townend 
Glover, who later was the first entomologist of the U. 8S. Department of 
Agriculture, and a brief résumé of his biography was given with special 
emphasis on his very strongly marked individuality and his personal eccen- 
tricities. All interested were advised to read the vivid and colorful biography 
of Glover by Charles Richard Dodge, published in 1888 as U. 8. Division of 
Entomology Bulletin, old series, No. 18. Several extracts were read by the 
speaker from various papers not yet published dealing with sundry phases of 
Glover’s career. There was also considerable discussion by the speaker of 
other entomologists connected at one time or another with the Maryland 
Station, including C. V. Riley, R. 8S. Lull, W. G. Johnson, E. D. Sanderson, 
and others. Slides bearing portraits of these and a number of their con- 
temporaries in entomological work were shown and various phases of the 
career of each individual were given brief consideration. 

W. D. Pierce discussed some entomological experiences in the Philippines, 
under the title The sugar-cane insect problem in Negros; an abstract of this 
will be published later in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of 
Washington. Doctor Pierce’s remarks were discussed by GRAF, GAHAN, 
BisHopp, and Howarp. 

A. B. GAHAN reported the recent rearing by McCreary, of the University 
of Maryland, of Dicymolomia julianalis Walker, a small moth which he found 
to be feeding on the eggs of the common bagworm of evergreens (Thyridop- 
teryx ephemeraeformis Haw.). Mr. Gahan first observed this insect in a 
similar relation to the bagworms some fifteen years ago in the same locality, 
while connected with the University of Maryland. So far as he knew, no 
other like observation had been made by any other person since that time. 
The normal habit of the moth is said to be to infest the heads of the common 
cattail or Typha. 

Professor Cory reported the recent finding of Argentine ant (Iridomyrmex 
humilis Mayr) in a greenhouse in Baltimore, Maryland. This is a new dis- 


512 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 21 


tribution record and is the northernmost point of the known spread of this 
pest. 

Austin H. Cuiark, Notes on some local butterflies. This has been pub- 
lished in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 32: 
80-82, 1930. 

On motion of F. C. Bishopp, a vote of thanks was extended by the society 
to the authorities of the University of Maryland and to Professor Cory and his 
associates for the generous hospitality and for the splendid welcome given our 
society at the 421st meeting. 

J. S. Wave, Recording Secretary. 


| @Obituary 


OLIVER Perry Hay, a member of the Academy and of the Biological and 
Geological societies, died November 2, aged 84. He was born at Saluda, 
Jefferson County, Indiana, May 22, 1846, and studied at Eureka College, 
Yale University, University of Indiana, and the University of Chicago. After 
teaching several years at Eureka College and at Butler College, he became, in 
1895, an associate curator in the Field Museum. He was engaged in research 
work at the National Museum from 1897 until 1900, when he was appointed 
assistant and later associate curator in the department of vertebrate paleon- 
tology of the American Museum of Natural History. In 1907 he returned to 
Washington. He was a collaborator of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- 
ton from 1902 to 1906; research associate, 1912 to 1916; and associate from 
1917 until his retirement in 1926. ‘ 

He was the author of many papers on vertebrate paleontology. His longer 
works include a Bibliography and catalogue of the fossil Vertebrata of North 
America (1902), The fossil turtles of North America (1908), The Pleistocene 
age [of Indiana] and its Vertebrata (1912), The Pleistocene mammals of Iowa 
(1914), and three volumes on The Pleistocene of North America and its verte- 
brated animals (1923, 1924, 1927). Dr. Hay was a frequent contributor to 
this JouRNAL. His last contribution, which appears in this number, was 
handed to the editor only a few days before his death. 





INDEX TO VOLUME 20 


An * denotes the abstract of a paper before the AcaADrEmy or an affiliated society. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


Biological Society of Washington. 
Entomological Society of Washington. 
Geological Society of Washington. 
Philosophical Society of Washington. 
Washington Academy of Sciences. 


Proceedings: 84, 346. 

Proceedings: 15, 114, 153, 185, 384, 438, 495, 510. 
Proceedings: 29, 151, 241, 354, 435. 

Proceedings: 12, 28, 118, 137, 149, 183. 
Proceedings: 68, 340, 418. 


AUTHOR INDEX 


Apvams, L.H. The compressibility of rub- 

ber. 213. 

*The creation of the earth. 340. 

Auspricut, H.M. *Some biological prob- 
lems in National Park administration. 
349. 

AupricH, J. M. *Notes on the life zones 

of northern Europe. 84. 

*Recent entomological experiences 

in Europe. 114. 

*Reminiscences. 495. 

ANDERSON, E. G. *Colored light meas- 
urements on various photometers. 
13. 

Austin, L. W. Note on a comparison of 
sunspot numbers, terrestrial magnetic 
activity, and long wave radio signal 
strength. 73. 

BaILey, VERNON. *Some biological prob- 
lems of the Grand Canyon region. 
352. 

Baupur, W. V. *Remarks on the use of 
amite in cheese making. 189. 

Bax, Ropert. *Structural survey of the 
Adirondack anorthosite. 241. 

Barty, Tom. F. W. Pacificite, an ane- 
mousite basalt. 60. 

BartscH, Pauu. *Collecting in 
Caribbean Islands. 351. 

Bennett, H. H. *Contributions by the 
Bureau of Soils to the problem of 
erosion. 30 








the 


513 


BERKSON, JOSEPH. On the equation for 
the reaction between invertase and 
sucrose. 157. 

Berry, EpwarpD W. A new Pterophyllum 

from the Shinarump conglomerate in 

Utah. 458. 

*The origin and evolution of plants. 

344. 

*The history of the Andes. 69. 

Berry, Wittarp. A new hypural fan 
from the Miocene of Maryland. 41. 

—— Contributions to the paleontology 
of Peru, IV: ‘‘Orthophragmina’”’ (Dis- 
cocyclina) meroensis W. Berry, D. sp. 
432. 

Bowig, Wiuiiam. The scientific and 
practical value of triangulation. 53. 

BRIDGE, JOSIAH. *Early structural his- 
tory of the Ozark region. 151. 

Brooks, H. B. *The sensitivity of a 
galvanometer as a function of its re- 
sistence. 118. 

CampBELL, M. R. *The problem of the 
scientific classification of coal. 485. 

Carter, E. E. *The 1929 scientific ex- 
plorations in Alaska: Forestry. 71. 

CarTER, WALTER. *Some phases of the 
sugar-beet leafhopper problem. 153. 

Casz, E.C. Discovery of Permo-Carbon- 
iferous vertebrates in the Dunkard 
formation of West Virginia. 370. 


514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 21 


CHAMBERLIN, R. T. *Isostasy from the 
geological point of view. 454. 

Cuapin, Epwarp A. New Coccinellidae 
from the West Indies. 488. 

— *Remarks on exotic Scarabaeidae 
imported into the United States. 499. 

CuHRISLER, V. L. *Absorption of sound 
at oblique angles of incidence. 28. 

Cuark, AustINH. *Evolution. 68. 

Cops, N. A. The demanian vessels in 
nemas of the genus Oncholaimus; with 
notes on four new Oncholaims. 225. 

Coz, E.F. *America’sowntropics. 85. 

Coteman, L. V. *Museums in South 
America. 

Couuins, H. B. *The 1929 scientific 
explorations in Alaska: Archeology. 
70. 

Cooks, C. WytHeE. Pleistocene seashores. 
389. 

CusHMAN, JosepH A. The interrrelation 
of Foraminifera and Algae. 395. 

DACHNOWSKI-STOKES, ALFRED P. Peat 
profiles of the Everglades in Florida: 
the stratigraphic features of the ‘‘Up- 
per’ Everglades and correlation with 
environmental changes. 89. 

— Peat profiles in Maine: The South 
Lubec “‘heath’’ in relation to sea level. 
124. 

— Peat profiles in the Puget Sound 
Basin of Washington. 193. 

DAVENPORT, CHARLESB. The mechanism 
of organic evolution. 317, *345. 

DENSMORE, FrANcES. The music of the 
American Indian at public gatherings. 
509. 

DRECHSLER, CHARLES, Some new species 
of Pythium. 398. 

Drypven, H. L. *Effect of turbulence in 
wind-tunnel experiments. 187. 

Evans, O. F. The antiquity of man as 
shown at Frederick, Oklahoma: a 
criticism. 475. 

FarirRcHILD, JouHN G. The volumetric 
determination of fluorine by the use of 
ferric chloride. 141. 

Ferauson, H. G. *Vein quartz of the 
Alleghany district, California. 151. 

Fisk, Hartan W. *Secular variation of 
magnetic intensity, and its accelera- 
tions in Pacific countries. 13. 


FRIEDMANN, Hersert. The geographic 
variations of Neocichla gutturalis 
(Bocage). 434. 

*Parasitism in birds. 85. 

GauM, O. E. *Insect pests and mites 

related to the mushroom industry. 

384. 

*Note on ILinopodes antennaepes 

Banks. 155. 

Gautsorr, Paut 8. *Old and new con- 
cepts of the organism in the light of 
experimental studies on sponges. 
344. 

Gipson, R. E. The compressibility of 
rubber. 213. 

GoutpMaNn, E. A. A new pocket mouse 
from Lower California. 223. 

—— Anewracoon from Lower California, 
82. 

GoutpMAN, Marcus I. *Types of silicifi- 
cation in the Paleozoic of Virginia. 
356. 

Goranson, R. W. *Some problems in 
isostasy. 447. 

Greece, W. R. *The 1929 scientific ex- 
plorations in Alaska: Meteorology. 
pe 

GUTENBERG, B. Hypotheses on the de- 
velopment of theearth. 17. 

Hai, Maurice C. *Parasites of elk and 
other wild ruminants. 87. 

Hay, Outver, P. On the fossil Mammalia 
of the first interglacial stage of the 
Pleistocene of the United States. 
501. 

— Remarks on Dr. George G. Simp- 
son’s work on the Pleistocene paleon- 
tology of Florida. 331. 

Hewett, D. F. *Genesis of iron-manga- 
nese carbonate concretions in Central 
South Dakota. 248. 

Heyt, P. R. *Absorption of sound at 
oblique angles of incidence. 28. 

Hiegerns, Ermer. *Great Lakes investi- 
gations. 348. 

Hitcucockx, A. S. Four new grasses. 
381. 

Howarp, C. S. *Suspended matter in 
the Colorado River. 30. 

Howarp, L. O. *Observations on some 
entomologists and their work, during 
a recent western trip. 15. 








: 
: 





DEC. 19, 1930 


Howarp, L.O. Someearly entomologists. 
511. 

HoLLANDER, FRANKLIN. On the equa- 
tion for the reaction between inver- 
tase and sucrose. 157. 

Howe tt, A. H. *Recent notes on birds 
and mammals of the Everglades. 85. 

HrpurcKa, ALES. *The 1929 scientific 
explorations in Alaska: Anthropol- 
ogy. 70. 

Huupert, HE. O. *Ions and electrical 
currents in the upper atmosphere. 
29. 

Humeureys, W. J. The Philosophical 
Society of Washington through a 
thousand meetings. 245. 

Jounson, C. D. *The strength of metal 
tubing for structural purposes. 185. 

KatmpacnH, E. R. *Notes on waterfowl 
sickness in 1929. 86. 

Kiiurep, ELuswortH P. Ten new species 
of Passiflora, mainly from Colombia 
and Peru. 374. 

—— The identity of the South American 

fish poisons, ‘‘cube’’ and ‘‘timbd.”’ 

74. 

*Over the Peruvian Andes and down 

the Amazon for plants. 352. 

Kirk, Epwin. Trophocrinus, a new Car- 
boniferous crinoid. 210. 





Kuetue, A.M. *Effect of turbulence in 
wind-tunnel experiments. 187. 

Lane, A.C. *Geotherms. 450. 

Lane, WALTER B. Note on temperature 
gradients in the Permian basin. 121. 

Larson, A. O. *Bean-weevil infesta- 
tions. 4838. 

LEONARD, EMERY C. The genus Trichan- 
thera. 484. 


LONGWELL, CHESTER R. *Some problems 
of mountain structure and mountain 
history. 441. 

Marsa, C. D. 

300. 

MartTINDALE, P. N. *Intimate habits of 
wild animals. 349. 

McComs, H. HE. *Some recent instru- 
mental investigations in terrestrial 
magnetism and seismology. 149. 

Merriam, C. Hart. Little-known tribes 
of the Salmon, New, and Trinity 
Rivers in northwestern California. 
148. 


*The poisonous laurel. 


AUTHOR INDEX 


O15 


Mertir, J. B., JR. 
in Alaska. 354. 

Mertcatr, Maynarp M. *Origin and evo- 
lution of the higher one-celled animals 
346. 

Morton, C. V. A new cannon-ball tree 
from Panama. 396. 

— A new species of Calathea from 
Panamé. 372. 

— A new species of Hsenbeckia from 
Texas. 1385. 

Mounns, E. N. *Some forestry observa- 
tions in Kurope. 349. 

Moris, O. J. *Elk studies in the Jackson 
Hole region. 87. 

Newson, H.W. Anew pocket mouse from 
Lower California. 223. 

— A new raccoon from Lower Cali- 
fornia. 82. 

Nouan, THomas B. Paleozoic formations 
in the Gold Hill quadrangle, Utah. 
421. 

Peters, H. S. 
birds. 351. 

PETRENKO, S.N. *The strength of metal 
tubing for structural purposes. 185. 

PittieER, H. Botanical notes on, and 
descriptions of, new and old species of 
Venezuelan plants—III. Old and 
new species of Euphorbiaceae. 3. 


*Mountain building 


*External parasites of 


Poos, F. W. *Leafhopper injury to leg- 
umes. 116. 
Putnam, G. R. *Isostasy: what gravity 


measurements reveal. 336. 

Raper, KENNETH B. Myxamoebae in soil 
and decomposing crop residues. 362. 

RaprPlEYE, Howarp 8. *Observers’ pat- 
terns. 118. 

Ratupun, Mary J. A new Callianassa 
from the Cretaceous of South Dakota. 
1. 

—: Hoploparia westonti Woodward. 180 

REESIDE, JOHN B., Jr. A Cretaceous 
pelecypod with color markings. 59. 

— The Cretaceous faunas in the sec- 
tion on Vermilion Creek, Moffat 
County, Colorado. 35. 


Rico, W. H. *Alaska salmon investiga- 
tions. 347. 

Rorsser, W. F. *Thermoelectric pyrom- 
etry. 183. 


*Note on the pink boll- 
189. 


RouWER, S. A. 
worm in Arizona. 


516 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ‘VOL. 20, No. 21 


Rouwer, S. A. *Pink bollworm in Ari- 
zona and Mediterranean fruit fly in 
Florida. 489. 

Ross, C. P. *Classification of the ore 
deposits of south-central Idaho. 436. 

Rosssy, C.-G. On the effect of vertical 
convection on lapse rates. 33. 

Sarcent, R. H. *Photographing Alaska 
and its glaciers from the air. 348. 

ScuraDER, F. C. *Antimony deposits. 
436. 

ScHREINER, OSWALD. *Biological science 
in the East Indies. 354. 


SEEGER, R. J. Appell’s equations. 481. 


Serre, O. E. *Mackerel investigations. 
347. 
SHaMEL, H. Harotp. A new murine 


opossum from Argentina. 83. 

SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. Descriptions 
of two new amphipod crustaceans 
(Talitridae) from the United States. 
107. 

Smitu, A. C. The identity of the South 
American fish poisons, ‘‘cube’’ and 
“timb6é.”’ 74. 

SmitH, Froyp F. *Studies of the black 
vine weevil. 185. 

SmitH, Puitie S. *The 1929 scientific 
explorations in Alaska: Geology. 71. 

Snoperass, R.E. *Howinsects fly. 115. 

*Reviews of some European litera- 

ture on insect morphology. 15. 

Snyper, W. F. *Absorption of sound at 
oblique angles of incidence. 28. 

Stites, C. W. *Proposals submitted as 
amendments to International Rules of 
Zoological Nomenclature. 86. 

Stose, G. W. *Review of the peneplains 
and gravel terraces of the northern 
Appalachians. 152. 


| Wiis, J. E. 


Stuart, R. Y. *The 1929 scientific ex- 
plorations in Alaska: Forestry. 71 

Taytor, L.8. *Standardization of X-ray 
dosage. 184. 

THom, CHARLES. Myxamoebae in soil 
and decomposing crop residues. 362. 

Titton, L. W. *Variations in the optical 
density of glass. 12. 

Titus, Harry W. The symmetry of the 
autocatalytic curve. 357. 

TucKERMAN, L. B. *The strength of 
metal tubing for structural purposes. 
185. 

Watuis, W. F. *A comparison of mag- 
netic disturbance at different stations. 
138. 

Warren, F. A. *Along the trails of 
Mount Rainier. 350. 

We tts, R.C. Thesolubility of some rare- 


earth nitrates inether. 146. 
WENSEL, H.T. *Optical pyrometry. 184. 
Westover, H. L. *Plant exploration in 


Turkestan. 353. 

Wuerry, Epaar T. A long-lost Phloz. 
2. 

— Plants of the Appalachian shale- 
barrens. 43. 

WuippLe, R. W. Discovery of Permo- 
Carboniferous vertebrates in the 
Dunkard formation of West Virginia. 
370. 

Wiese, A. H. *Some observations in 
increasing pond productivity. 350. 

Wiuuiams, R.S. Haitian mosses collected 
by E. C. Leonard. 173. 

— Mosses collected in Brazil and 
Argentina by J. N. Rose in 1915. 465. 

*Recent experiments with 

timekeepers. 138. 





SUBJECT INDEX 


Anthropology. *Alaska, scientific explor- 
ations in 1929. ApS HrpuicKa. 70. 
- Man, antiquity of, at Frederick, Okla- 


homa. O.F. Evans. 475. 
Archeology. *Alaska, scientific explora- 
tions in 1929. H.B. Couns. 70. 
Biography. *Reminiscences. J. M. Aup- 
RICH. 495. 
Biology. *Hast Indies, biological science 
in. OSWALD SCHREINER. 354. 


*Grand Canyon, biological problems of. 
VERNON BAILEY. 352. 

*Life zones of northern Europe. J. M. 
ALDRICH. 84. 

Myxamoebae in soil and decomposing 
erop residues. CHARLES THOM and 
KENNETH B. Raper. 362. 

*National Park administration, biolog- 
ical problems of. H. M. Ausricur. 
349, 

Botany. Appalachian shale-barrens plants. 
HpGar T. WHERRY. 43. 

Calathea, new species from Panama. 
C. V. Morton. 372. 

Cannon-ball tree, new, from Panama. 
C.V.MorrTon. 396. 

“Cube”’ and ‘‘timbé,’’ South American 
nich y poisons, “identity “of. Ey P. 
Kiuurp and A. C. Smita. 

Esenbeckia, a new species of, from 


Texas. C.V.Morron. 135. 
Euphorbiaceae, Venezuelan. H. Pir- 
TIER. 93. 

*Forestry in Europe. E. N. Mun s. 
349. 


Grasses, four new. A. S. Hrrcncock. 
381. 

Haitian mosses. R.S. Winuiams. 173. 

*Laurel, the poisonous. C. D. Marsa. 
350. 

Mosses from Brazil and Argentina. 
R.S. Witutams. 465. 

Passiflora, new species from Colombia 
and Peru. Exusworta P. Kip. 
374, 


or 


~I 


*Peruvian Andes and the Amazon, 
expedition to. E. P. Kinurp. 352. 
Phlox, a long lost. Epaar T. WHERRY. 


25. 

Pythium, new species of. CHARLES 
DRECHSLER. 398. 

Trichanthera. Emery CC. LEONARD. 
484, 


*Turkestan, plant exploration in. H. 
L. WESTOVER. 353. 

Chemistry. Fluorine, volumetric deter- 
mination of. JOHN G. FAIRCHILD. 
141. 

Invertase and sucrose, reaction between. 
JOSEPH BERKSON and FRANKLIN HOL- 
LANDER. 15/7. 

Rare-earth nitrates, solubility in ether. 
R.C. Weuts. 146. 

Entomology. *Bean-weevil 
A.O. Larson. 488. 

*Black vine weevil. 
185. 

Coccinellidae, new West 
Epwarp A. CHAPIN. 488. 
*Experiences in Europe. J.M.ALpDRICH. 

114. 

*How insects fly. R. E. SNoparass. 
IIL, 

*Insect morphology, European litera- 
tureon. R.E.Snoperass. 15. 

*Leafhopper injury to legumes. F. W. 
Poos. 116. 

*Mite (T'yroglyphus siro) used in cheese 
making. W.V. Baupur. 189. 

*Mushroom industry, insect pests and 
mites related to. O. E. Gan, 384. 

*Mushroom mite Linopeodes antennaepes. 
O.E.Gaum. 155. 

*Pink bollworm in Arizona. S. A. 
Rouwer. 189. 

*Pink bollworm in Arizona and Mediter- 
ranean fruit fly in Florida. S. A. 
RouHWER. 489. 

*Scarabaeidae, imported exotic. 
CHAPIN. 499. 


infestations. 


Fioyp F. Smita. 


Indian. 


B. A. 


518 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 21 


*Sugar-beet leafhopper problem. Wat- 
TER CARTER. 153. 

*Western entomologists, work of. 
Howarp. 15. 

Ethnology. Indian tribes of California. 
C. Hart Merriam. 148. 
Music of the American 
FRANCES DENSMORE. 509. 
Evolution. *Earth, creation of. 

Apams. 340. 
*Evolution. Austin H. Cuarx. 68. 
*Higher one-celled animals, origin and 
evolution of. Maynarp M. Mercatr. 
346. 
Organic evolution, mechanism of. 
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT. 317. *345. 
*Organism, the, old and new concepts of. 
PauLS. GautTsorr. 344. 


L.'Os 


Indian. 


ia 3 


*Plants, origin and evolution of. E.W. 
Berry. 344. 
Forestry. *Alaska, scientific explorations 


in 1929. R. Y. Stuart and E. E. 
CARTER. 71. 

General Science. The Philosophical Soci- 
ety of Washington through a thousand 


meetings. W. J. Humpureys. 245. 
Geodesy. *Observers’ patterns. How- 
ARD §. RappLeye. 118. 


Triangulation, scientfic and practical 
value of. Witi1amM Bowie. 53. 
Geography. *Alaska and its glaciers from 

the air. R.H.Sarcent. 348. 
*American tropics. E.F.Cor. 85. 
Geology. *Alaska, mountain building in. 

J.B. Mertig, Jr. 354. 

*Alaska, scientific explorations in 1929. 
Puitip SmirH. 71. 

*Andes, history of. Epwarp W. BErry. 
69. 


*Anorthosite, Adirondack, structural 


survey of. Rospert BALK. 241. 
*Antimony deposits. F.C. ScHraDER. 
436. 


*Alleghany district, California, vein 
quartz of. H.G. Frreuson. 151. 
Cretaceous faunas on Vermilion Creek, 

Colorado. JoHNB.ReEEsIDE, JR. 35. 

*Coal, scientific classification of. M. 
R. CAMPBELL. 435. 

*EHrosion, contributions by the Bureau 
of Soils to the problem of. H. H. 
BENNETT. 30. 

Gold Hill quadrangle, Utah, Paleozoic 


formations in. THomas B. Nowan. 
421. 

*Idaho, classification of ore deposits of. 
C.P.Ross. 436. 

*Tron-manganese carbonate concretions, 
genesis of. D.F. Hewett. 248. 

*Ozark region, early structural history 
of. JostaH BripGe. 151. 

*Peneplains and gravel terraces of the 
northern Appalachians. G.W.SrTossE. 
152. 

Pleistocene seashores. 
389. 

*Silicification, types of, in the Paleozoic 
of Virginia. Marcus I. GoLpMaANn. 
356. 

Geophysics. Development of the earth, 
hypotheses on. B. GUTENBERG. 17. 

*Geotherms. A.C. Lane. 450. 

*Gravity measurements, what they 
reveal. G.R. Putnam. 336. 

Isostasy, abstracts of paperson. 441. 

*Isostasy from the geological point of 
view. R.T.CHAMBERLIN. 454. 


C. W. Cooke. 


*Isostasy, problems in. R. W. Goran- 
son. 447. 
*Mountain structure, problems of. 


CHESTER R. LONGWELL. 441. 
Sunspot numbers, terrestrial magne- 


tism, and long-wave radio signal 
strength, comparison of. L.W. Aus- 
PENG Hess 


Temperature gradients in the Permian 
basin. WALTER B. Lane. 121. 

*Terrestrial magnetism and seismology, 
instrumental investigations in. H. 
E.McComps. 149. 

Hydrology. *Colorado River, suspended 
matterin. C.S.Howarp. 30. 
Mathematical physics. Appell’sequations. 

R.J.SEEGER. 481. 


Mathematics. Autocatalytic curve, sym- 
metry of. Harry W. Titus. 357. 
Meteorology. *Alaska, scientific explora- 


tions in 1929. W.R.Greeae. 71. 
Vertical convection, effect of, on lapse 
rates. C.G.Rossspy. 33. 
Museums. *Museums in South America. 
L. V. ConEMAN. 86. 


Necrology. Autt, JAMES Percy. 120. 
FEWKES, JESSE WALTER. 420. 
FRANKLIN, WILLIAM SuppARDS. 420. 


Hau, AsapH. 172. 





DEC. 19, 1930 


Hay, OLIVER Perry. 512. 

JENISON, HinpeRTA.C. 190. 

Katz, FRANK JAMES. 480. 

Orton, WILLIAM ALLEN. 88. 

SIEBENTHAL, CLAUDE E.tswortH. 191 

TonporrF, Francis ANTHONY. 16. 

Wit8y, Harvey WASHINGTON. 420. 

Woop, GrorcE McLane. 480. 

Ornithology. *Everglades, the, birds and 

mammalsof. A.H.HowELu. 85. 

Neocichla gutturalis, variations of. 
HERBERT FRIEDMANN. 484. 


*Parasites, external, of birds. H. S. 
Berers. 350. 

*Parasitism in birds. HERBERT FRIED- 
MANN. 89. 


*Waterfowl sickness in 1929. E. R. 
KALMBACH. 86. 

Paleobotany. Pterophyllum, new, from 
Utah. Epwarp W. Berry. 458. 
Paleontology. Callianassa, new, from the 

Cretaceous of South Dakota. Mary 
JRRATHBUN. 1. 

Color markings on a Cretaceous pelecy- 
pod. JoHN B. ReEsIpe£, Jr. 59. 

Dunkard formation of West Virginia, 
Permo-Carboniferous vertebrates in. 
R. W. Wuiprte and E. C. Case. 
370. 

Hoploparia westoni Woodward. Mary 
J. RatTHBun. 180. 

Hypural fan, new, from the Miocene of 
Maryland. WiLuARD Berry. 41. 

Mammalia of the first interglacial stage 
of the Pleistocene. Outver P. Hay. 
501. 

“Orthophragmina”’ (Discocyclina) mero- 
ensis. WILLARD Berry. 482. 

Pleistocene of Florida, Simpson’s work 
on: QOxviver P: Hay.  33l-. 

Trophocrinus, a new Carboniferous eri- 
noid. Epwin Krrx. 210. 

Petrography. Pacificite, an anemousite 
basalt. Tom. F.W.Bartu. 60. 

Physical chemistry. Rubber, compres- 
sibility of. L. H. Apams and R. E. 
Gisson. 213. 

Physical geography. Everglades, the, 
peat profiles in. ALFRED P. Dacu- 
NOWSKI-STOKES. 89. 

Puget Sound Basin of Washington, peat 
profiles in. ALFrep P. DacHNnowskI- 
STokes. 193. 


SUBJECT INDEX 


519 


South Lubec “‘heath’’, Maine, peat pro- 
files in. ALFRED P. DacHNowskI- 
Strokes. 124. 

Physics. *Absorption of sound at oblique 
angles ‘of incidence. P. R. Hey, 
V. L. Curister, and W. F. Snyper. 
28. 

*Atmosphere, upper, ions and electrical 
currentsin. E.O. HuLperr. 29. 

*Galvanometer, sensitivity of. H. B. 
Brooks. 118. 

*Magnetic disturbance, comparison of. 
W.F. Watts. 138. 

*Magnetic intensity, secular variation 
of, and its accelerations in Pacific 
countries. Haran W. Fisk. 13. 

*Metal tubing, strength of. L. B. 
TuckeRMAN, 8S. N. PETRENKO, and 
C.D. Jounson. 185. 

*Optical density of glass, variations in. 
L. W. Tinton. 12. 


*Optical pyrometry. H. T. WENSEL. 
184. 

*Photometers, colored-light measure- 
mentson. E.G. ANDERSON. 13. 
*Thermoelectric pyrometry. W. F. 

Roeser. 183. 


*Timekeepers, recent experiments with. 
J. HE. Wiis. 138. 


*Wind-tunnel experiments, effect of 
turbulence in. H. L. DrypEn and 
A.M. Kuetue. 137. 

*X-ray dosage, standardization of. L. 
S. Tayutor. 184. 

Scientific Notes and News. 31, 52, 71, 88, 


119, 139, 156, 171, 190, 244, 388, 419, 
463, 479, 500. 

Zoblogy. Amphipod crustaceans 
tridae), new American. 
R. SHOEMAKER. 107. 

*Caribbean Islands, 
Paut BartscH. dol. 

*Elk studies in the Jackson Hole region. 
OF Miumim. 87. 

*Hverglades, the birds and mammals of. 
A.H. Hower. 85. 

Foraminifera and Algae, interrelation 
of. JosppH A. CUSHMAN. 395. 

*Great Lakes investigations. ELMER 
Hiearns. 348. 

*Mackerel investigations. 
347. 


(Tali- 
CLARENCE 


collecting in. 


O. E. SETTE. 


~ 


520 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 21 


*Mount Rainier, along the trails of. F. 
A. WARREN. 3850. 

Nemas of the genus Oncholaimus, de- 
manian vesselsin. N.A.Cobb. 225. 

*Nomenclature, proposed amendments 
to international rules. C. W. STILEs. 
86. 

Opossum, new murine, from Argentina. 
H. HAROLD SHAMEL. 88. 

Pocket mouse, new, from Lower Cali- 
fornia. E. W. Newson and E. A. 
GOLDMAN. 2283. 


*Parasites, external, of birds. H. S. 
Peters. 351. 

*Parasites of wildruminants. MAaAvRIcE 
C. Hann. § 87. 

*Pond productivity, increasing. A. H. 
WIEBE. 350. 

Raccoon, new Lower Californian. E. 
W.Neuson and E. A.GoupMANn. 82. 

*Salmon investigations, Alaskan. W. 
H. Ric. 347. 

*Wild animals, intimate habits of. P, 
N.MartTINDALE. 349. 











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ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS 


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easton 


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CONTENTS — 


ORIGINAL PAPERS : 
Paleontology.—On the fossil mammalia of the first. interglacia 
Pleistocene of the United States. Oxiver P. Hay....... 


Ethnology.—The music of the American Indians at publi ge 
(Abstract). Frances DENSMORE..................4. oe 


Fi 





‘PROCEEDINGS 
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